Resumen de Cumbres borrascosas en contexto: singularidad hermenéutica en tradiciones narrativas
1. Introducción o motivación de la tesis A pesar de ser un clásico – o quizás por esta razón – los críticos siempre han considerado Cumbres Borrascosas como un texto con un significado impenetrable. El propósito de esta tesis es combatir el agotamiento hermenéutico en torno a Cumbres Borrascosas. Mi metodología consistirá, por tanto, en hacer un análisis temático-comparativo de la novela con otros textos del siglo dieciocho y principios del diecinueve. En The True Story of the Novel, Margaret Anne Doody afirma que los escritores del siglo diecinueve tenían gran contacto con los escritores del siglo dieciocho. Así, si tiramos de los hilos de una novela del diecinueve, éstos nos llevarán siempre hacia atrás. Según Margaret-Ann Doody, la herencia genética de la novela está siempre presente y toda novela tiene una cadena de relaciones literarias mayor que la indicada por las alusiones explícitas que contiene. Todo novelista (bueno o malo, mejor o peor, fantástico o realista) repite los tropos de la Novela misma (Doody 299), y es precisamente en estos tropos en los que basaré mi análisis comparativo. Por tanto, trataré de identificar las características que Cumbres Borrascosas comparte con Pamela (Samuel Richardson), los cuentos de Heinrich von Kleist, The Monk (Matthew Lewis), Manfred (Lord Byron), Shirley y Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë), Barry Lyndon (William Thackeray), y Oliver Twist (Charles Dickens), entre otras.
2. Contenido de la investigación En el Capítulo 2, “An Overview of Wuthering Heights,” resumo los principales análisis críticos que la novela de Emily Brontë ha recibido desde su publicación en 1848 y expongo las lagunas y deficiencias de estas aproximaciones críticas. Con este propósito, organizo estas revisiones críticas en dos grupos: 1) aquellos críticos que postulan la existencia de un significado determinado recuperable que puede ser material/immanente (determinismo sociológico), o espiritual/transcendental (determinismo temático); y, 2) aquellos críticos que postulan la existenica de un significado indeterminado (deconstrucción). Quiero alinearme con los críticos que valoran sobre todo la heterogeneidad y el valor múltiple del texto, pero pretendo hacer algo que estos críticos nunca han intentado deliberadamente: enriquecer esta heterogeneidad examinando la relación dialógica con textos previos. Así, propongo un nuevo grupo crítico que plantea un determinismo intertextual de la novela. Mi objetivo es justificar la extrañeza del texto analizando los posibles precedentes de Cumbres Borrascosas; vencer la parálisis crítica que rodea la novela y su lugar indeterminado dentro de la tradición narrativa inglesa; y demostrar que la novela de Emily Brontë no es sui generis. El crítico Edward Said resume perfectamente mi premisa: “La literatura es un orden excéntrico de repeticiones, no de originalidad” (Beginnings 12, mi traducción). Por tanto: En el Capítulo 3, “Wuthering Heights: “The Housekeeper’s Tale,” argumento que el aspecto más revolucionario de esta novela conecta la teoría marxista con la narratología: es una de las primeras veces en la literatura victoriana que un personaje de clase baja, Nelly Dean, cuenta la historia, violando el código social. En este sentido, la novela adquiere un pedigrí picaresco que sólo puede encontrarse en algunas novelas del siglo dieciocho: Tom Jones, Moll Flanders, Robinson Crusoe, y Pamela. En su papel de consejera en la novela, Nelly Dean adquiere una posición de subalternidad social, pero autoridad moral. La originalidad de la novela reside pues en “la representación vocal de una transgresión social” (Jiménez Heffernan 235, mi traducción). Esto conlleva unas consecuencias éticas: 1) la narración polifónica de Nelly exterioriza las perspectivas que los discursos sociales hegémónicos habían silenciado; 2) el discurso de Nelly constituye una contra-historia; 3) esto permite al lector posicionarse en posiciones ideólogicas dispares, lo que acerca a la novela a la ficción moderna y postmoderna.
En el Capítulo 4, “Wuthering Heights and Kleist’s Novellen: Rousseaunian Nature, Implosive Communities and Performative Subversion of the Law,” argumento que Cumbres Borrascosas es bastante consistente con la tradición alemana de la Novelle, y, especialmente, con las narraciones de Kleist. Uno de los temas prevalentes en los cuentos de Kleist y en Cumbres Borrascosas es el ferviente deseo de escapar de una civilización corrupta que frustra los sentimientos más sinceros de los personajes. Con este propósito, los personajes conciben tres estrategias de sabotaje de la comunidad normativa: 1) escapar a un escenario natural que promueve la autenticidad y la confraternidad cristiana; 2) la implosión anómica y erótica de los amantes; 3) la reiteración paródica de la comunidad normativa que comporta una subversión implícita.
En el Capítulo 4, “Wuthering Heights: A Gothic Novel,” comparo Cumbres Borrascosas con la novela de Matthew Lewis, The Monk, entre otras novelas. Aquí analizo cómo Cumbres Borrascosas se apropia de motivos Góticos para explorar cuestiones de genealogías fragmentadas y contaminadas, expósitos, venganza, subrogación, violencia, locura, sucesos sobrenaturales, y compulsiones históricas/domésticas. Argumento que la novela de Emily Brontë muestra la inestabilidad de la división artificial entre novelas góticas y domésticas, y que el mayor logro de E. Brontë es poner lo doméstico al servicio de lo gótico.
En el capítulo 5, “Wuthering Heights: An Epic Poem” empleo el poema de Lord Byron, Manfred, como co-texto literario que ilumina tanto formal como temáticamente algunas partes de la novela. En este capítulo, intento demostrar que tanto Manfred como Cumbres Borrascosas poseen un componente épico-dramático que tiene su origen en el poema épico de Milton, Paradise Lost. Por ende, me centro en la cualidad poética de los discursos más fervientes y elegíacos de la novela; en la comunión de los personajes con una naturaleza salvaje; en las comunidades transcendentales de amantes; en los lutos elegíacos; en Manfred y Heathcliff, dos héroes fatales; y en cómo Cumbres Borrascosas explota y critica el Byronismo simultáneamente. Finalmente, afirmo que la estructura profunda de la novela es un drama épico cuyo protagonista es un personaje Satánico y Byroniano, y que la novela contiene una constelación de temas que tiene su origen en la tradición Romántica inglesa.
En el capítulo 6, “Wuthering Heights: A Social Novel,” trato de desafiar la afirmación de Winifred Gérin de que Cumbres Borrascosas “no expone cuestiones sociales” (42, mi traducción), y hago una lectura materialista de Cumbres Borrascosas que se centra en razones históricas contingentes. Así pues, reformulo la afirmación de Fredrich Jameson de que “Heathcliff es el locus de la Historia” y defiendo que Heathcliff es en realidad el locus de la infraestructura ya que integra cuatro tipos de alteridades infraestructurales: el proletario, el sujeto colonial, el soldado e, indirectamente, la condición de la mujer. Con este objetivo, he dividido el capítulo en cuatro secciones y he seleccionado tres novelas diferentes que me permiten leer Cumbres Borrascosas como una novela social que expone – o no – cuatro tipos de infraestructura. Así, utilizo la novela de Charlotte Brontë, Shirley, como el texto matricial que mejor representa la voz del proletario y “la Cuestión de la Mujer,” y que me permitirá leer Cumbres Borrascosas como una novela sobre la “Condición de Inglaterra;” Jane Eyre es el texto que me permitirá leer Cumbres Borrascosas como una “novela colonial;” y la novela de William Thackeray, Barry Lyndon, me permitirá leer la historia no contada de Heathcliff como la de un soldado reprimido por la estructura social.
En el capítulo 7, “Wuthering Heights: A Bildungsroman” leo la historia narrada – y no narrada – de Heathcliff como una potencial Bildungsroman, usando algunas novelas de Charles Dickens (David Copperfield, Nicholas Nickleby, Oliver Twist, etc.) y otras novelas del siglo diecinueve como filtro comparativo. Quizás Emily Brontë no tenía intención de escribir una Bildungsroman, pero la condición marginal de Heathcliff, su transición de “inocencia” a “experiencia” – o de “oprimido” a “opresor” – su posterior conversión en parvenu, y su autodeterminación convierten su historia en una especie de Bildungsroman. Es esta evolución de un estado natural (infancia e “inocencia”) a un estado social (madurez y “experiencia”) lo que me interesa aquí. He de añadir que me baso en el libro de Franco Moretti, The Way of the World (1987), para determinar si Cumbres Borrascosas encaja en el patrón de la Bildungsroman.
Mi argumento se funda en cuestiones históricas – Inglaterra no era un lugar tan plácido y aburrido como Moretti sugiere sino un lugar más turbulento – y en cuestiones temáticas: (a) la historia de Heathcliff es una historia de movilidad social (pero estancamiento psicológico); (b) el paradigma oposicional entre “bueno” y “malo” tan representativo de los cuentos de hadas queda cancelado en la novela, ya que Heathcliff representa ambiguamente el papel de héroe y villano; (c) la historia de ascensión social de Heathcliff muestra su gran individualidad, demostrando que él no es un personaje “común;” (d) esta movilidad social tiene lugar sin “el patrón de reconocimiento-herencia” tan común en las novelas de Dickens y a través de su taimado control de la ley; (e) el legado ideológico de Cumbres Borrascosas se encuentra en la literatura anterior; y, finalmente, (f) la venganza inconsciente de Heathcliff contra la ley revela sus contradicciones.
3. Conclusión El texto desarticulado y vestigial de Cumbres Borrascosas es la reliquia de una historia completa. Los espacios en blanco que intervienen al principio, en medio y al final de esta historia esquelética – que es, sobre todo, la historia de Heathcliff – son vacíos; huecos que ensombrecen, penetran y perforan los sucesos principales de la historia. Así, si como afirma Hillis Miller, una novela es “un tejido complejo de repeticiones y repeticiones dentro de repeticiones” (Fiction 2, mi traducción), quizás la pregunta que debemos plantearnos no es cuál es el punto de partida o la fuente original de la que Cumbres Borrascosas proviene, sino qué elementos resurgen a través de las diferentes configuraciones de los personajes y cuáles son las imágenes a las que la novela de Emily Brontë continuamente retorna. Lo que he intentado hacer en esta tesis es forzar al texto para que confiese. Mi principal esfuerzo como intérprete analítica ha sido extraer el secreto del texto, forzar su lengua para que declare y confiese; buscar sus fósiles; los hilos que llevan hacia sus orígenes, ya que el texto no los revela, o al menos, “no de forma literal o vulgar” (Henry James, The Turn of the Screw 3, mi traducción).
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