Una aproximación a la relación entre los estilos de pensamiento y el grado de adaptación de los expatriados
- Autores: Francisco de Borja Martín Garrido
- Directores de la Tesis: Carlos García Alonso (dir. tes.), Emilio Morales Fernández (codir. tes.), Charles Vance (codir. tes.)
- Lectura: En la Universidad de Córdoba (ESP) ( España ) en 2017
- Idioma: español
- Tribunal Calificador de la Tesis: Fernando José Fuentes García (presid.), Desireé Ruiz Aranda (secret.), Marc Valax (voc.)
- Programa de doctorado: Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Ciencias Jurídicas y Empresariales
- Materias:
- Enlaces
- Tesis en acceso abierto en: Helvia
- Resumen
1. Introducción o motivación de la tesis Los procesos de expatriación, cada día más frecuentes debido a la globalización de las economías y las operaciones multinacionales, son complejos y complicados. Es importante analizar la adaptación internacional de los expatriados, este concepto “international adjustment”, es un elemento que se compone de varias variables.
Una de ellas es la forma en la que los expatriados piensan y como se enfrentan a las situaciones. La investigación analizará el equilibrio entre el pensamiento lineal y no lineal y las implicaciones que tiene a la hora de adaptarse psicológicamente, socioculturalmente y desde un punto de vista laboral.
Esta investigación puede ser muy útil para conocer cómo se comportan y piensan los expatriados. La investigación mediría la forma de pensar de los mismos y la capacidad de adaptación de los mismos en entornos internacionales.
Para desarrollar dicha investigación, haremos una recolección de datos entre profesionales expatriados en países distintos a los de origen.
Hace algunos años, en el 2007 y mejorada en el 2014, el Dr. Charles Vance desarrolló una herramienta “Linear/Nonlinear Thinking Style Profile” (LNTSP) para medir y poder realizar diagnósticos de estilo de pensamiento. El principal objetivo que tuvo en esta investigación era desarrollar y probar un modelo que midiera un estilo de pensamiento integral e forma que pudiera reflejar con precisión la propensión de una persona a depender de las fuentes lineales y no lineales (laterales) de la información y procesos para guiar la acción subsiguiente.
El estudio sobre los estilos de pensamiento y sus implicaciones para el desarrollo personal y profesional es importante. La forma de pensar lineal/no lineal y su equilibrio es determinante a la hora de ver como las personas se desenvuelven en sus procesos de aprendizaje, sociabilidad y adaptación.
Concretamente, se han estudiado las implicaciones que estas tienen para áreas importantes como: • Innovación y el emprendimiento. Dependiendo del modelo de pensamiento y su equilibrio podremos medir la creatividad, la capacidad de innovar y de emprender nuesas y mejores tareas.
• Marketing y Ventas. En relación a las mismas hemos visto como los modelos de pensamiento afectan a la percepción del consumidor y uso de la información, la interpretación de un mercado y de la información usada en la publicidad. Igualmente, el estilo de pensamiento comporta diferencias individuales en consumidor y en las relaciones con los clientes.
• Trabajo en equipo. Los modelos de pensamiento afectan a los comportamientos de los miembros de equipos de trabajo, las preferencias de roles, creatividad organizacional, la generación de ideas y el desarrollo de estereotipos.
• Toma de decisiones y resolución de problemas. Los estilos de pensamiento pueden claramente afectar a la toma de decisiones estratégicas, el diseño de sistemas de apoyo a las decisiones y la toma de decisiones a nivel ejecutivo o gerencial.
• Gestión y Organización del Aprendizaje. La influencia de los estilos de pensamiento en el proceso de supervisión de la investigación y en la gestión de la educación, el rendimiento del aprendizaje, el diseño del curriculum, el aprendizaje basado en competencias y la organización del aprendizaje.
• Carrera profesional y preferencia vocacional. Se ha visto la utilidad de los estilos cognitivos para selección, reclutamiento, diseño de empleo y planificación de la plantilla y de la carrera profesional y vocacional.
• Liderazgo. En relación a este, podemos ver la influencia entre las áreas de liderazgo, las relaciones de intercambio líder-miembro del equipo, liderazgo y creatividad y liderazgo y gestión del cambio.
• Cultura. En este ámbito se puede ver la influencia de las diferencias de estilo en la adaptación transcultural.
2. Contenido de la investigación.
Este trabajo de investigación persigue varios objetivos diferentes. Por un lado, se persigue profundizar en el análisis y la comprensión de los estilos de pensamiento y de la clasificación de las personas considerando la medición bidimensional de los estilos de pensamiento según los planteamientos de Groves y Vance (2014). Estos autores contrastan la existencia de ocho tipos diferentes de pensamiento (lineal, creativo, emocional, intuitivo, centrado en valores, flexible, imaginativo y de visualización) y los sintetizan en dos estilos de pensamiento distintos y complementarios. Uno es el estilo de pensamiento lineal, vinculado a la consciencia, a la racionalidad y al sentido común. Los otros siete tipos de pensamiento son facetas del estilo de pensamiento no lineal, alternativo al lineal aunque no incompatible.
Con la medición bidimensional de los estilos de pensamiento (Lineal y No Lineal), Groves y Vance (2014) proponen la existencia de cinco arquetipos o combinaciones de los dos estilos de pensamiento que representan tres perfiles de pensamiento equilibrados y dos perfiles desequilibrados: Contables y Artistas.
A lo largo de nuestro análisis, se desarrolló una metodología estadística multivariante para clasificar a los individuos como pensadores no lineales o pensadores lineales (equilibrados o no equilibrados) siguiendo el modelo de Groves y Vance (2014) y su herramienta LNTSP (Linear/non Linear Thinking Style Además, para analizar el grado de adaptación del expatriado a las experiencias internacionales, se construyó un cuestionario basado en tres escalas que median la capacidad de adaptación del expatriado: Escala de ajuste psicológico (nueve ítems) utilizando el modelo desarrollado por Van Oudenhoven et al. (2003); Escala de ajuste sociocultural (SCAS) por Ward y Kennedy (1989), utilizando los 22 ítems más relevantes del cuestionario; y la Escala de Ajustes para Expatriados de Black y Stephens (1989) para adaptación general, de interacción y de ajuste de trabajo (14 ítems). En nuestro trabajo, la muestra se compone de 188 expatriados.
La combinación de los dos ámbitos de interés señalados, eclosionan en el objetivo global de esta investigación, que puede ser desglosado en dos objetivos parciales que se tornan complementarios al combinarlos: • Objetivo Específico 1: Analizar la existencia de las cinco combinaciones de estilos de pensamiento en expatriados.
• Objetivo Específico 2: Analizar el grado de ajuste o perfil de adaptación psicológica, sociocultural y laboral de los expatriados.
• Objetivo Global: Analizar la relación causal entre el perfil de estilos de pensamiento y el perfil de adaptación de los expatriados.
3. Conclusión La presente tesis doctoral se estructura en seis capítulos que se presentan a continuación siguiendo el siguiente esquema metodológico: El primer capítulo es introductorio y recoge una presentación del tema objeto de estudio, la justificación de la necesidad del mismo, los objetivos generales y específicos y el planteamiento de hipótesis para terminar con la estructura del trabajo.
A continuación, los capítulos segundo y tercero exponen la revisión bibliográfica y la parte teórica de la investigación. El segundo se centra en los estilos de pensamiento, su definición y marco teórico así como la su relevancia para la gestión, la educación y el ámbito empresarial. Igualmente, aborda las dimensiones lineales y no lineales de los mismos así como su medición y arquetipos. El capítulo tercero se centra en la adaptación internacional y sus dimensiones. Las mismas se abordan clasificándolas en las psicológicas, las socioculturales y la laboral.
El capítulo cuarto se centra en la metodología empleada, la muestra, los instrumentos de medición y el análisis de datos obtenidos.
El capítulo cinco se centra en los resultados obtenidos con el análisis factorial multivariante y los constructos identificados, la segmentación de la muestra, el reajuste de los factores así como las diferencias entre los grupos. Igualmente se estudia la validación de hipótesis.
En el capítulo sexto se estudian las conclusiones, las limitaciones del estudio, las posibles futuras líneas de investigación.
Como conclusión, se puede afirmar tras clasificar los grupos, plantear las hipótesis y aplicar una metodología multi variante se puede afirmar que existen diferencias significativas entre arquetipos definidos y la adaptación internacional.
La primera hipótesis acerca de que existen diferencias significativas entre los 5 arquetipos definidos y que estos pueden ayudar a clasificar los expatriados es parcialmente confirmado. Se observan los cinco grupos claramente aunque hay algunos grupos que se agrupan en parejas como los pensadores mínimamente versátiles y los contables por un lado y los Artistas y los pensadores altamente versátiles.
La segunda gran hipótesis acerca de que los expatriados con distintos estilos de pensamiento tienen diferente grado de adaptación psicológica está confirmada y especialmente se demuestra que los expatriados que son pensadores con alto nivel de versatilidad en equilibrio de pensamiento son los que mejor se adaptan en los entornos internacionales.
Para finalizar se puede afirmar que esta investigación puede ser útil para conocer cómo se comportan y piensan los expatriados así como la capacidad de adaptación de los mismos en entornos internacionales.
4. Bibliografía Abdolmohammadi, M. J., Read, W. J., and Scarborough, D. P. (2003). Does selection-socialization help to explain accountants’ weak ethical reasoning? Journal of Business Ethics, 42, 71–81.
Abramson, N. R., Lane, H. W., Nagai, H., and Takagi, H. (1993). A comparison of Canadian and Japanese cognitive styles: Implications for management interaction. Journal of International Business Studies, 24, 575–587.
Adkins, C. L. (2005). Staffing organizations: A comprehensive applied exercise. Human Resource Management Review, 15, 226–237.
Ady, J. (1995). Towards a differential demand model of sojourner adjustment. In R. L. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 92-114). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Allinson, C. W., and Hayes, J. (1996). The Cognitive Style Index: A measure of intuition-analysis for organizational research. Journal of Management Studies, 33, 119–135.
Allinson, C. W., Chell, E., and Hayes, J. (2000). Intuition and entrepreneurial behaviour. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9, 31–43.
Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt and Co.
Antonietti, A., and Gioletta, M. A. (1995). Individual differences in analogical problem solving. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 611–619.
Aritzeta, A., Senior, B., and Swailes, S. (2005). Team role preference and cognitive styles: A convergent validity study. Small Group Research, 36, 404–436.
Armstrong, S. J, Allinson, C. W., and Hayes, J. (1997). The implications of cognitive style for the management of student-supervisor relationships. Educational Psychology, 17, 209–217.
Armstrong, S. J, Allinson, C. W., and Hayes, J. (2004). The effects of cognitive style on research supervision: A study of student-supervisor dyads in management education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 3, 41–63.
Armstrong, S. J. (1999). Cognitive style and dyadic interaction: A study of supervisors and subordinates engaged in working relationships. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Leeds, England.
Armstrong, S. J. (2000). The influence of cognitive style on performance in management education. Educational Psychology, 20, 323–339.
Armstrong, S. J. (2004). The impact of supervisors’ cognitive styles on the quality of research supervision in management education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 599–616.
Armstrong, S. J., and Priola, V. (2001). Individual differences in cognitive style and their effects on task and social orientations of self-managed work teams. Small Group Research, 32, 283–312.
Armstrong, S. J., and Sadler-Smith, E. (2006, August 11–16). Cognitive style and its relevance for the management of careers. Paper presented at the 66th Academy of Management Conference, Atlanta, GA.
Au, A. K. M. (1997). Cognitive style as a factor influencing performance of business students across various assessment techniques. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 12, 243–250.
Backhaus, K., and Liff, J. P. (2007). Cognitive styles and approaches to studying in management education. Journal of Management Education, 31, 445–466.
Bar-Tal, Y. (1994). The effect on mundane decision making of the need and ability to achieve cognitive structure. European Journal of Personality, 8, 45–58.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248-254. Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., and Wheelwright, S. (2003). The systemizing quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high- functioning autism, and normal adults. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B (Biological Sciences), 358, 361-374.
Baron, R. A. (2004). The cognitive perspective: A valuable tool answering entrepreneurship’s basic “why” questions. Journal of Business Venturing, 19, 221–239.
Beckman, S. L., and Barry, M. (2007). Innovation as a learning process: Embedding design thinking. California Management Review, 50, 25–56.
Belbin, R. M. (1981). Management teams: Why they succeed or fail. London: Heinemann.
Berings, M. G. M. C., Poell, R. F., and Simons, P. R. (2005). Conceptualizing on-the-job learning styles. Human Resource Development Review, 4 , 373–400.
Berno, T., and Ward, C. (1998). Psychological and sociocultural adjustment of in- ternational students in New Zealand. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society of Australasian Social Psychologists, Christchurch, New Zealand.
Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D. A., Shaffer, M. A., and Luk, D. M. (2005). Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: Meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions. Academy of Management Journal, 48: 257-281.
Black, J. S. (1988) Work role transitions: a study of American expatriate managers in Japan, Journal of International Business Studies, 19, 277-94.
Black, J. S. and Gregersen, H. B. (1999). The right way to manage expats. Harvard Business Review, 52–63, 77.
Black, J. S., and Stephens, G. K. (1989). The influence of the spouse on American expatriate adjustment in Pacific Rim overseas assignments, Journal of Management, 15, 529-544.
Blustein, D. L., and Phillips, S. D. (1988). Individual and contextual factors in career exploration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 33, 203–216.
Bonabeau, E. (2003). Don’t trust your gut. Harvard Business Review, May, 116–123.
Booth, P. and Winzar, H. (1993). Personality biases of accounting students: Some implications for learning style preferences. Accounting and Finance, 33(2), 109-120. Brisset, C., Safdar, S., Lewis, J. R., and Sabatier, C. (2010). Psychological and sociocultural adaptation of university students in France: The case of Vietnamese international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations.
Bromage, N. (2000). No business without show business. Management Accounting, 78(3), 52-53. Buckingham, M. (2005). What great managers. Harvard Business Review, 83, 70–79.
Buttner, E. H., and Gryskiewicz, N. (1993). Entrepreneurs’ problem-solving styles: An empirical study using the Kirton adaption/innovation theory. Journal of Small Business Management, 31, 22–31.
Caligiuri, P. M., Hyland, M., Joshi, A. and Bross, A. S. (1998). Testing a theoretical model for examining the relationship between family adjustment and expatriates’ work adjustment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 598–614.
Carmines, E.G., and Zeller, R.A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. N. 07-017, Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Chan, D. (1996). Cognitive misfit of problem-solving style at work: A facet of person organization fit. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 68, 194– 207.
Chow, K. A., and Esses, V. M. (2005). The development of group stereotypes from descriptions of group members: An individual differences approach. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 8, 429–445.
Clapham, M. M. (2000). Employee creativity: The role of leadership. Academy of Management Executive, 14, 138–139.
Claxton, G. (2001). The anatomy of intuition. In T. Atkinson and G. Claxton (Eds.), The intuitive practitioner (pp. 32–52). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
Cole, C. A., and Gaeth, G. J. (1990). Cognitive and age related differences in the ability to use nutritional information in a complex environment. Journal of Marketing Research, 27, 175–184. Company, Inc.
Cools, E. (2008). Cognitive styles and management behaviour: Theory, measurement, and application. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.
Cooper, S. E., and Miller, J. A. (1991). MBTI learning style-teaching style discongruencies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 699–706.
Cornelissen, J.P., and Clarke, J.S. (2010). Imagining and rationalizing opportunities: Inductive reasoning and the creation and justification of new ventures. Academy of Management Review, 35, 539–557.
Crossan, M.N. and Sorrenti, M. (1997). Making sense of improvisation. In J. Walsh and A. Huff (Eds.), Advances in Strategic Management (pp. 155-180). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: HarperCollins.
D’Amato, A., and Zijlstra, F. R. H. (2008). Psychological climate and individual factors as antecedents of work outcomes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 17, 33–54.
Damasio, A.R. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: HarperCollins.
Dane, E., and Pratt, M.G. (2007). Exploring intuition and its role in managerial decision-making. Academy of Management Review, 32, 33-54.
De Bono, E. (1970). Lateral thinking. New York: Penguin Books De Bono, E. (1992). Serious creativity: Using the power of lateral thinking to create new ideas. New York: HarperCollins.
De Dreu, C. K. W., Koole, S. L., and Oldersma, S. (1999). On the seizing and freezing of negotiator inferences: Need for closure moderates the use of heuristics in negotiation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 348–363.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J. and Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
Diliello, T., and Houghton, J. (2008). Creative potential and practiced creativity: Identifying untapped creativity in organizations. Creativity and Innovation Management, 17, 37–46.
Dimov, D. (2007). From opportunity insight to opportunity intention: The importance of person-situation learning match. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31, 561– 583.
Dorfman, J., Shames, V.A., and Kihlstrom, J.F. (1996). Intuition, incubation and insight: Implicit cognition in problem solving. In G. Underwood (Ed.), Implicit cognition (pp. 257–296). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ehrhart, K. H., and Ziegert, J. C. (2005). Why are individuals attracted to organizations? Journal of Management, 31, 901–919. Empirischen Soziologie. 4th edn., Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. Empirischer Pädagogik und Psychologie. Münster: Waxmann Wissenschaft, 211–28.
Entwistle, N. J., and Tait, H. (1994). The Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction.
Epstein, S. (1991). Cognitive-experiential self theory: An integrative theory of personality. In R. Curtis (Ed.), The self with others: Convergences in psychoanalytic, social, and personality psychology (pp. 111–137). New York: Guilford Press.
Epstein, S., Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., and Heier, H. (1996). Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-rational thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 390–405.
Felder, R.M., and Silverman, L.K. (1988). Learning styles and teaching styles in engineering education. Engineering Education, 78, 674–681.
Fiet, J.O. (2002). The systematic search for entrepreneurial discoveries. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
Fisher, D.G. and Ott, R.L. (1996). A study of the relationship between accounting students’ moral reasoning and cognitive styles. Research on Accounting Ethics, 2, 51-71. Fisher, S. G., Macrosson, W. D. K., and Wong, J. (1998). Cognitive style and team role preference. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 13, 544–557.
Fornell, C., and Larcker, D.F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.
Fox, F. V., and Straw, B. M. (1979). The trapped administrator: Effects of job insecurity and policy resistance upon commitment to a course of action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 449–471.
Foxall, G. (1994). Consumer initiators: Both adaptors and innovators. British Journal of Management, 5, 3–12.
Furnham, A., and Bochner, S. (1982). Social diffculty in a foreign culture: An empirical analysis of culture shock. In S. Bochner (Ed.), Cultures in contact.
Furnham, A., and Bochner, S. (1986). Culture shock: Psychological reactions to unfamiliar environments. New York: Methuen.
Gallén, T. (2006). Managers and strategic decisions: Does the cognitive style matter? Journal of Management Development, 25, 118–133.
Garfield, M. J., Taylor, N. J., Dennis, A. R., and Satzinger, J. W. (2001). Research report: Modifying paradigms-individual differences, creativity techniques, and exposure to ideas in group idea generation. Informational Systems Research, 12, 322–333.
Geary, W.T. and Rooney, C.J. (1993). Designing accounting education to achieve balanced intellectual development. Issues in Accounting Education, Spring, 60-70.
Gibb, S. (2004). Imagination, creativity, and HRD: An aesthetic perspective. Human Resource Development Review, 3, 53–74.
Ginn, C. W., and Sexton, D. L. (1990). A comparison of the personality type dimensions of the 1987 Inc. 500 company founders/CEOs with those of slower-growth firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 5, 313–326.
Goetz, J., and James, R. (2008). Human choice and the emerging field of neuro-economics. Journal of Personal Finance, 6, 13–36.
Goldstein, K. M., and Blackman, S. (1978). Cognitive style. New York: Wiley.
Goleman, D. (1998). Emotional intelligence at work. New York: Bantam.
Graham, M.A., and Baize, K. (2011). Executive thinking: From brightness to brilliance. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse.
Gregersen, H., and Sailer, L. (1993). Chaos theory and its implications for social science research. Human Rela- tions, 46, 777–802.
Groves, K.S. and Vance, C.M. (2014). Linear and nonlinear thinking: A multidimensional model and measure. Journal of Creative Behaviour, 49, 111–136.
Groves, K.S., and LaRocca, M. (2011). Responsible leadership outcomes via stakeholder CSR values: Testing values-centered model of transformational leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 37–55.
Groves, K.S., Vance, C.M., and Choi, D. (2011). Entrepreneurial cognition: Examining the thinking style differences between entrepreneurs and business managers, accountants, and actors. Journal of Small Business Management, 49, 438–466.
Hair, J.F., Ringle, C.M., and Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 137–149.
Hamidi, D.Y., Wennberg, K., and Berglund, H. (2008). Creativity in entrepreneurship education. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 15, 304–320.
Harris, P. (1994). Can management accountants make decisions? Management Accounting, 72(7), 14.
Harzing, A. W. K. (1995). The persistent myth of high expatriate failure rates. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 6, 457–474.
Hayashi, A.M. (2001). When to trust your gut. Harvard Business Review, 79, 59–65 Hayes, J., Allinson, C. W., Hudson, R. S., and Keasey, K. (2003). Further reflections on the nature of intuition-analysis and the construct validity of the Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 269–278.
Hayes, J., and Allinson, C. W. (1994). Cognitive style and its relevance for management practice. British Journal of Management, 5, 53–71.
Hayes, J., and Allinson, C. W. (1996). The implications of learning styles for training and development: A discussion of the matching hypothesis. British Journal of Management, 7, 63–73.
Hayes, J., and Allinson, C. W. (1998). Cognitive style and the theory and practice of individual and collective learning in organizations. Human Relations, 51, 847–871.
Hayibor, S., Agle, B.R., Sears, G.J., Sonnenfeld, J.A., and Ward, A. (2011). Value congruence and charismatic leadership in CEO-top manager relationships: An empirical investigation. Journal of business ethics, 102, 237–254.
Hayley, U. C. V., and Stumpf, S. A. (1989). Cognitive trails in strategic decision making: Linking theories of personalities and cognitions. Journal of Management Studies, 26, 477–497.
Henseler, J., and Dijkstra, T.K. (2015). ADANCO 2.0. Composite Modeling, Kleve, available at: www.compositemodeling.com (accessed March 1, 2017).
Hill, J., Puurula, A., Sitko-Lutek, A., and Rakowska, A. (2000). Cognitive style and socialisation: An exploration of learned sources of style in Finland, Poland and the UK. Educational Psychology, 20, 285–305 Hills: Sage.
Hippler, T. (2006). Another scandal in Bohemia? A look back on how we measure expatriate adjustment. In M. J. Morley, N. Heraty, and D. G. Collings (Eds.), New Directions in Expatriate Research (pp. 64-93). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hmieleski, K. M., and Corbett, A. C. (2006). Proclivity for improvisation as a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Small Business Management, 44, 45–63.
Hodgkinson, G. P. (2003). The interface of cognitive and industrial, work and organizational psychology. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 1–25.
Hodgkinson, G. P., and Clarke, I. (2007). Exploring the cognitive significance of organizational strategizing: A dual process framework and research agenda. Human Relations, 60, 243–255.
Hodgkinson, G. P., and Sadler-Smith, E. (2003a). Complex or unitary? A critique and empirical re-assessment of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 243–268.
Hodgkinson, G. P., and Sadler-Smith, E. (2003b). Reflections on reflections . . . on the nature of intuition, analysis and the construct validity of the Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 279–281.
Hogarth, R.M. (2001). Educating intuition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Holland, J. (1985). Making vocational choices (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Holland, J. (1998). Emergence: From chaos to order. Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley. Honey, P., and Mumford, A. (1992). The manual of learning styles (3rd edn). Maidenhead: Honey. Horgan, J. (1989). Nonlinear thinking. Scientific American, 260, 26–27.
Izzo, G. (1997). The art of play: The new genre of interactive theatre. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Jacoby, P.F. (1981). Cognitive styles and career success in the accounting profession. Research in Psychological Type, 4, 24-37.
Kaufmann, G. (1991). Problem solving and creativity. In J. Henry (Ed.), Creative management (pp. 103–134). London: Sage.
Keller, P. A., and McGill, A. (1994). Differences in the relative influence of product attributes under alternative processing conditions: Attribute importance versus attribute ease of imagability. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 3, 29–49.
Kelley, C., and Meyers, J. (1995). Cross-cultural Adaptability Inventory manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
Kelly, M. (1998). Encyclopedia of aesthetics (vol. 2). New York: Oxford University Press.
Khatri, N. and Ng, H.A. (2000). The role of intuition in strategic decision-making. Human Kiesler, S., and Sproull, L. (1982). Managerial response to changing environments: Perspectives on problem sensing from social cognition. Administrative Science Quarterly, 27, 548–570.
Kirton, M. J. (1976). Adaptors and innovators: A description and measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 622–669.
Kirton, M. J. (2003). Adaption-innovation in the context of diversity and change. London: Routledge.
Klijn, M., and Tomic, W. (2010). A review of creativity within organizations from a psychological perspective. Journal of Management Development, 29, 322–343.
Kolb, D.A. (1976). On management and the learning process. California Management Review, 18, 21–31.
Kozhevnikov, M. (2007). Cognitive styles in the context of modern psychology: Toward an integrated framework of cognitive style. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 464–481.
Kubeš, M. (1998). Adaptors and innovators in Slovakia: Cognitive style and social culture. European Journal of Personality, 12, 187–198.
Kubovcikova, A. (2016). Going through the motions: Testing the measurement perspective, dimensionality and internal consistency of the three-dimensional adjustment scale. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research, 4(2), 149-175.
Lazarus, R. S. (1976) Patterns of Adjustment. 3rd edn., New York: McGraw-Hill.
LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain. New York: Touchstone/Simon and Schuster.
Leonard, D., and Straus, S. (1997). Putting your company’s whole brain to work. Harvard Business Review, 75, 111–121.
Lichtenstein, B. and Mendenhall, M.E. (2002). Non-Linearity and response-ability: Emergent order in 21st Century careers. Human Relations, 55, 3-32.
Losada M., and Heaphy, E. (2004). The Role of positivity and connectivity in the performance of business team: A nonlinear dynamics model. The American Behavioral Scientist, 47, 740-765 Mainzer, K. (2007). Thinking in complexity: The complex dynamics of matter, mind and mankind (5th edn). New York: Springer.
McIntyre, R. P., and Meloche, M. S. (1995). Cognitive style and customer orientation. Journal of Business and Psychology, 10, 75–86.
McIntyre, R. P., Claxton, R. P., Anselmi, K., and Wheatley, E. W. (2000). Cognitive style as an antecedent to adaptiveness, customer orientation, and self-perceived selling performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 15, 179–196.
McKenzie, J., and van Winkelen, C. (2011). Beyond words: Visual metaphors that can demonstrate comprehen- sion of KM as a paradoxical activity system. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 28, 138–149.
McNair, D., Lorr, M., and Droppleman, I. (1971). Profile of Mood States. San Diego CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
Meng, Y.K., Ashkanasy, N.M., and Hartel, C.E.J. (2003). The effects of Australian tall poppy attitudes on Amer- ican value based leadership theory. International Journal of Value-Based Management, 16, 53–65.
Messick, S. (1996). Bridging cognition and personality in education: The role of style in performance and development. European Journal of Personality, 10, 353–376.
Miles, R. E., and Snow, C. C. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure and process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Miller, C., and Ireland, D. (2005). Intuition in strategic decision making: Friend or foe in the fast-paced 21st century. Academy of Management Executive, 19, 19–30.
Mitchell, R. K., Busenitz, L., Lant, T., McDougall, P. P., Morse, E. A., and Smith, H. B. (2002). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial cognition: Rethinking the people side of entrepreneurship research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 27, 93–104.
Mortlock, M. (2010). Cultivating imagination in public management. Public Manager, 39, 73–76.
Moshavi, D. (2001). “Yes and ...”: Introducing improvisational theatre techniques to the management classroom. Journal of Management Education, 25(4), 437-449.
Myers, I.B. and McCaulley, M.H. (1985). Manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs type indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Nadler, G. (2004). Taking a holistic path. Industrial Management, 46, 26–31.
Nettle, D. (2006). Psychological profiles of professional actors. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 375-383.
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., and Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108, 291–310.
Nutt, P. C. (1990). Strategic decisions made by top executives and middle managers with data and process dominant styles. Journal of Management Studies, 27, 173–194. Open Doors (2016). Institute of International Education. Website: http://www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/Open-Doors/Data/US-Study-Abroad/Infographic, accessed on April 1, 2017.
Ogilvie, D.T. (1998). Creative action as a dynamic strategy: Using imagination to improve strategic solutions in unstable environments. Journal of Business Research, 41, 49–56.
Ortenblad, A. (2005). Are the right persons involved in the creation of the learning organization? Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16, 281–283.
Park, D. C., Nisbett, R., and Hedden, T. (1999). Aging, culture and cognition. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 54B, P75–P84.
Parker, D., and Stacey, R. (1998). Chaos management and economics: The implications of non-linear thinking. IEA Hobart Paper, no. 125. London: The Institute of Economic Affairs.
Peters, T.F. (1998). How creative engineers think. Civil Engineering, 68, 48–51. Pezzulo, G., and Castelfranchi, C. (2009). Thinking as the control of imagination: A conceptual framework for goal-directed systems. Psychological Research, 73, 559–577.
Pinard, M.C., and Allio, R.J. (2005). Innovations in the classroom: Improving the creativity of MBA students. Strategy and Leadership, 33(1), 49-51.
Ployhart, R. E. (2006). Staffing in the 21st century: New challenges and strategic opportunities. Journal of Management, 32, 868–897.
Priola, V., Smith, J. L., and Armstrong, S. J. (2004). Group work and cognitive style: A discursive investigation. Small Group Research, 35, 565–595.
Ramanathan, S., and Williams, P. (2007). Immediate and delayed emotional consequences of indulgence: The moderating influence of personality type on mixed emotions. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 212–223.
Rand Health Sciences Program (1992). Rand 36-Item Health Survey 1.0. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
Rao, H. R., Jacob, V. S., and Lin, F. (1992). Hemispheric specialization, cognitive differences, and their implications for the design of decision support systems. MIS Quarterly, 16, 145–151.
Regine, B., and Lewin, R. (2003). Third possibility leaders: The invisible edge women have in complex organizations. The Learning Organization, 10, 347–352. Related to expatriate and spouse repatriation adjustment, Journal of International Business Studies, 22 (4), 671–94. Repatriation adjustment and job performance, Human Relations, 45 (2), 177–92.
Reinartz, W., Haenlein, M., and Henseler, J. (2009). An empirical comparison of the efficacy of covariance-based and variance-based SEM. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 26, 332–344.
Rhodes, J. D., and Thame, S. (1988). Accelerating innovation through real-time workshops. Long Range Planning, 21, 41–46.
Riding, R., and Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive styles: An overview and integration. Educational Psychology, 11, 193–215.
Ringle, C.M., Wende, S., and Becker, J.M. (2015). SmartPLS 3. Boenningstedt: SmartPLS GmbH, URL: http://www.smartpls.com Robert, T., and Kelly, V. (2010). Metaphor as an instrument for orchestrating change in counselor training and the counseling process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 88, 182–188.
Robey, D. (1992). Response to Rao et al.: More ado about cognitive style and DSS design. MIS Quarterly, 16, 151–153.
Robey, D., and Taggart, W. (1981). Measuring managers’ minds: The assessment of style in human information processing. Academy of Management Review, 6, 375–383.
Robey, D., and Taggart, W. (1982). Human information processing in information and decision support systems. MIS Quarterly, 6, 62–73.
Roldán, J.L., and Sánchez-Franco, M.J. (2012). Variance-based structural equation modelling: Guidelines for using partial least squares in information systems research. In M. Mora, M. Mora, et al. (Eds.), Research methodologies, innovations and philosophies in software systems engineering and information systems (pp. 193–221). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Rook, D. W., and Fisher, R. J. (1995). Normative influences on compulsive buying behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 22, 301–313.
Rossman, J. (1931). The psychology of the inventor. Washington: Inventors. Rowe, W.G. (2001). Creating wealth in organizations: The role of strategic leadership. Academy of Management Executive, 15, 81–94.
Ruiz, S., and Sicilia, M. (2004). The impact of cognitive style and/or affective processing styles on consumer response to advertising appeals. Journal of Business Research, 57, 657–664.
Sadler-Smith, E. (1998). Cognitive style: Some human resource implications for managers. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 9, 185–202.
Sadler-Smith, E. (1999). Intuition-analysis cognitive style and learning preferences of business and management students: A UK exploratory study. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 14, 26–38.
Sadler-Smith, E. (2001). A reply to Reynolds’s critique of learning style. Management Learning, 32, 291–304.
Sadler-Smith, E. (2008). The role of intuition in collective learning and the development of shared meaning. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10, 494–508.
Sadler-Smith, E., and Shefy, E. (2004). The intuitive executive: Understanding and applying “gut feel” in decision-making. Academy of Management Executive, 18, 76–91.
Sadler-Smith, E., and Smith, P. J. (2004). Strategies for accommodating individuals’ styles and preferences in flexible learning programmes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35, 395–412.
Sanchez-ruiz, M., Hernandez-torrano, D., Perez-gonzalez, J., Batey, M., and Petrides, K. (2011). The relation- ship between trait emotional intelligence and creativity across subject domains. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 461–473.
Scarbrough, D.P. (1993). Cognitive styles and job satisfaction of accountants. Journal of Psychological Type, 25, 3-10. Schaeffer, R. (1985). Developing New Leadership in a Multinational Environment (Technical report no.874). New York: Conference Board.
Schloemer, P.G. and Schloemer, M.S. (1997). The personality types and preferences of CPA firm professionals: An analysis of changes in the profession. Accounting Horizons, 11(4), 24-39.
Searle, W. and Ward, C. (1990). The prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 449–464.
Segal, E. (2004). Incubation in insight problem solving. Creativity Research Journal, 16, 141–148.
Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W. and Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human Behavior in Global Perspective. An Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Seligman, M.E.P., Parks, A.C., and Steen, T. (2006). A balanced psychology and a full life. In F. Huppert, B. Keverne and N. Baylis (Eds.), The science of well-being (pp. 275–283). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shackleton, V. (1980). The accountant stereotype: Myth or reality?. Accountancy, November, 122-123.
Shani, A.B., and Lau, J. (2005). Behavior in organizations: An experiential approach (8th edn). New York: McGraw-Hill. Shapiro, S., and Spence, M. (1997). Managerial intuition: A conceptual and operational framework. Business Horizons, 40, 63–68. Sherman, J. W. (2001). The dynamic relationship between stereotype efficiency and mental representation. In G. B. Moskowitz (Ed.), Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton Symposium on the Legacy and Future of Social Cognition (pp. 177–190). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Shirley, D., and Langan-Fox, J. (1996). Intuition: A review of the literature. Psychological Reports, 79, 563–584 Shirley, D., and Langan-Fox, J. (1996). Intuition: A review of the literature. Psychological Reports, 79, 563-584. Simon, F., and Usunier, J. C. (2007). Cognitive, demographic, and situational determinants of service customer preference for personnel-in-contact over self-service technology. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 24, 163–173.
Simon, H.A. (1987). Making management decisions: The role of intuition and emotion. Academy of Manage- ment Executive, 1, 57–64.
Simon, H.A., Newell, A., and Shaw, J.C. (1979). The process of creative thinking. In H.A. Simon (Ed.), Models of thought (pp. 195–214). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Sloan, D. (1983). Insight-imagination: The emancipation of thought and the modern world. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Smith, M. (1999). Personality issues and their impact on accounting and auditing. Manage- rial Auditing Journal, 14(9), 453-460.
Smith, R. A., and Khawaja, N. G. 2011. A review of the acculturation experiences of international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(6): 699-713.
Sojka, J. Z., and Giese, J. L. (2006). Communicating through pictures and words: Understanding the role of affect and cognition in processing visual and verbal information. Psychology and Marketing, 23, 995–1014.
Sparrow, P. R. (1999). Strategy and cognition: Understanding the role of management knowledge structures, organizational memory and information overload. Creativity and Innovation Management, 8, 140–148.
Spiro, R. L., and Weitz, B. A. (1990). Adaptive selling: Conceptualization, measurement, and nomological validity. Journal of Marketing Research, 27, 61–69.
Sternberg, R.J. (2002). Successful intelligence: A new approach to leadership. In R.E. Riggio, S.E. Murphy, and F.J. Pirozzolo (Eds.), Multiple intelligences and leadership (pp. 9–28). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sternberg, R.J., and Davidson, J.E. (1995). The nature of insight. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Sternberg, R.J., and Grigorenko, E.L. (1995). Styles of thinking in the school. European Journal for High Ability, 6, 201–219.
Stone Feinstein, B. E., and Ward, C. (1990). Loneliness and psychological adjustment of sojourners: New perspectives on culture shock. In D. M. Keats, D.
Stumpf, S. A., and Dunbar, L. M. (1991). The effects of personality type on choices made in strategic decision situations. Decision Sciences, 22, 1047–1072.
Sullivan, B. A., and Hansen, J. C. (2004). Mapping associations between interests and personality: Toward a conceptual understanding of individual differences in vocational behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 287–298.
Tetlock, P. E. (2000). Cognitive biases and organizational correctives: Do both disease and cure depend on the politics of the beholder? Administrative Science Quarterly, 45, 293–326.
Thompson, D. V., and Hamilton, R. W. (2006). The effects of information processing mode on consumers’ responses to comparative advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 530–540.
Tierney, P., Farmer, S. M., and Graen, G. B. (1999). An examination of leadership and employee creativity: The relevance of traits and relationships. Personnel Psychology, 52, 591–620.
Torrance, E.P., McCarthy, B., and Kolesinski, M.T. (1988). Style of learning and thinking. Bensenville, IL: Scho- lastic Testing Service.
Trower, P., Bryant, B., and Argyle, M. (1978). Social skills and mental health. London: Methuen.
Tsoukas, H.H. (1991). The missing link: A transformational view of metaphors in organizational Science. Academy of Management Review, 16, 566–585.
Tullett, A. D. (1995). The adaptive-innovative (A-I) cognitive styles of male and female project managers: Some implications for the management of change. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 68, 359–365.
Tullett, A. D. (1997). Cognitive style: Not culture’s consequence. European Psychologist, 2, 258–267.
Tullett, A. D., and Kirton, M. J. (1995). Further evidence for the independence of adaptive-innovative (A-I) cognitive style from national culture. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 393–296.
Tung, R. L. (1981). Selecting and training personnel for overseas assignments. Colombia Journal of World Business, 16, 68–78.
Van der Zee, K. I. and Van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2000). The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire: A multidimensional instrument of multicultural effectiveness. European Journal of Personality, 14, 291–309.
Van der Zee, K. I. and Van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2001). The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire: Reliability and validity of self and other ratings of multicultural effectiveness. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 278–288.
Van Oudenhoven, J.P., Mol, S.T., and Van der Zee, K.I. (2003). Study of the adjustment of Western expatriates in Taiwan ROC with the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 6, 159-170.
Vance, C.M., Groves, K.S., Paik, Y. and Kindler, H. (2007). Understanding and measuring linear/nonlinear thinking style for enhanced management education and professional practice. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 6, 167–185.
Vassen, E., Baker, C., and Hayes, R. (1993). Cognitive styles of experienced accountants in the Netherlands. British Accounting Review, 225, 367-382. Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace. Ward, C. (1996). Acculturation. In D. Landis and R. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (2nd Ed.) (pp. 124-147). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ward, C., and Kennedy, A. (1993a). Psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions: A comparison of secondary students at home and abroad. International Journal of Psychology, 28, 129-147.
Ward, C., and Kennedy, A. (1994). Acculturation strategies, psychological adjustment and sociocultural competence during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18, 329-343.
Ward, C., and Kennedy, A. (1996a). Crossing cultures: The relationship between psychological and sociocultural dimensions of cross-cultural adjustment. In J. Pandey, D. Sinha and D. P. S. Bhawuk (Eds.), Asian contributions to cross-cultural psychology (pp. 289-306). New Delhi: Sage.
Ward, C., and Kennedy, A. (1996b). Before and after cross-cultural transition: A study of New Zealand volunteers on ®eld assignments. In H. Grad, A. Blanco and J. Georgas (Eds.), Key issues in cross-cultural psychology (pp. 138-154).Lisse, Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger.
Ward, C., and Kennedy, A. (1998a). Acculturative stress and coping styles. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Ward, C., and Kennedy, A. (1998b). Psychological and sociocultural adjustment of British expatriates in Singapore. Unpublished raw data.
Ward, C., and Rana-Deuba, A. (1999). Acculturation and adaptation revisited. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30, 372-392.
Ward, C., and Searle, W. (1991). The impact of value discrepancies and cultural identity on psychological and sociocultural adjustment of sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15, 209-225.
Ward, C., and Kennedy, A. (1999). The measurement of sociocultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(4), 659-677.
Ward, C., Bochner, S., and Furnham, A. 2001. The psychology of culture shock. London and New York: Routledge.
Ward, C., Okura, Y., Kennedy, A., and Kojima, T. (1999). The U-curve on trial: A longitudinal study of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transition. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 277-291.
Ward, C., Okura, Y., Kennedy, A., and Kojima, T. (1998). The U-curve on trial: a longitudinal study of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transition. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(3): 277-291.
Ware, J. Jr., and Sherbourne, C.D. (1992). The MOS 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36): I. Conceptual Framework and Item Selection. Medical Care, 30, 473-483.
Weber, J.A. (2007). Business ethics training: Insights from learning theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 70, 61–85.
Webster, D. M., and Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1049–1062.
Weick, C.W. (2003). Out of context: Using metaphor to encourage creative thinking in strategic management courses. Journal of Management Education, 27, 323–343.
Weick, K.E. (1985). Systematic observational methods. In G. Lindsey, and E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd edn, vol. I, pp. 507–634). New York: Random House.
Weick, K.E. (1998). Improvisation as a mindset for organizational analysis. Organization Science, 9(5), 543-555. White, J. C., Varadarajan, P. R., and Dacin, P. A. (2003). Market situation interpretation and response: The role of cognitive style, organizational culture, and information use. Journal of Marketing, 67, 63–79.
Wickham, P. A. (2004). Strategic entrepreneurship (3rd ed.). Harlow, Essex, UK: Pearson Education.
Witkin, H. A., Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E., and Karp, S. A. (1971). A manual for the embedded figures tests. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Wright, T., and Goodstein, J. (2007). Character is not “dead” in management research: A review of individual character and organizational-level virtues. Journal of Management, 33, 928–958.
Yamazaki, Y., and Kayes, D. C. (2007). Expatriate learning: Exploring how Japanese managers adapt in the United States. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18, 1373–1395.
Yaniv, I., and Meyer, D.E. (1987). Activation and metacognition of inaccessible stored information: Potential bases for incubation effects in problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 13, 187–205.
Yiu, L., and Saner, R. (2000). Determining the impact of cognitive styles on the effectiveness of global managers: Propositions for further research. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11, 319–324.
Yuen, C. C., and Lee, S. N. (1994). Learning styles and their implications for cross-cultural management in Singapore. The Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 593–600.
Zhang, J., and Goodson, P. 2011. Predictors of international students’ psychosocial adjustment to life in the United States: A systematic review. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(2): 139-162.
Zhang, L. F. (2004). Predicting cognitive development, intellectual styles, and personality traits from self-rated abilities. Learning and Individual Differences, 15, 67–88.
Zhang, L. F., and Sternberg, R. J. (2005). A three-fold model of intellectual styles. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 1–53.
Zhang, L., and Sternberg, R.J. (Eds.). (2009). Perspectives on the nature of intellectual styles. New York: Springer.
Zhou, J. and George, J. (2003). Awakening employee creativity: The role of leader emotional intelligence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 545-568.
Zung, W. W. K. (1965). A self-rating depression scale. Archives of General Psychiatry, 12, 63-70.
