Resumen de Native italians’ comprehension of press information in spanish. A phraseodidactic approximation from a cognitive linguistics approach
ABSTRACT This thesis analyses the interlanguage effect in the learning process of Spanish phraseology by native Italians. It is intended to investigate the interactions between native languages and the learning process of a foreign language in the light of previous investigation on the area of phraseology and its didactics.
Phraseology plays a vital role in the acquisition of a foreign language, accomplishing the goal set in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, which depicts what knowledge and skills are to be developed in language acquisition, taking into account the cultural context in which this process is set. Phraseology is a challenging aspect of language learning, precisely because it brings along multiple cultural aspects that are rarely translated literally and that usually do not follow static grammar rules.
Phraseology, therefore, is presented as a basic feature of communication to be integrated in foreign language teaching by means of phraseodidactics. This PhD research is intended to confront the students with functional aspects of the language by means of real material.
RESEARCH QUESTION The main phenomenon to be investigated in the thesis is the impact of the linguistic profile to the comprehension of the phraseology in Spanish as a foreign language. Italy is chosen as the context since it offers a particular linguistic situation to its inhabitants, who naturally have a second native language or at least certain knowledge of it.
L’Italia d’oggi, guardata di lontano, con uno sguardo che l’abbraccia nell’insieme e a confronto con gli altri paesi del mondo, è uno dei tanti paesi segnati da un alto grado di plurilinguismo (De Mauro, 2005: 134).
This ensures the presence of rich linguistic backgrounds, providing an ideal situation to analyse at which stage of the foreign language-learning students are (interlanguage level) and what linguistic strategies they use to comprehend Spanish. Students will be explored to define their plurilingual profile so that the strategies used when understanding phraseology can be examined.
This will allow discerning the differences between diverse kinds of linguistic profiles. This vision will provide more understanding in the discipline of foreign language teaching. The acknowledgement gained by this research will be a helpful inspiration to the implementation of appropriate methodologies in language teaching.
Learners’ strategies will be framed in the didactics of a specific feature of language. The centre of analysis will be phraseology, which deals particularly with cultural contents, accomplishing one of the objectives set by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is intended to overcome the barriers to communication among professionals working in the field of modern languages arising from the different educational systems in Europe. It provides the means for educational administrators, course designers, teachers, teacher trainers, examining bodies, etc., to reflect on their current practice, with a view for situating and coordinating their efforts and ensuring that they meet the real needs of the learners for whom they are responsible .
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages describes what skills are to be acquired in language learning, taking into account the cultural context in which language is set. In this cultural context, phraseology becomes essential for learners to develop into efficient language users that know and understand the social faces of a language.
Phraseology is a challenging aspect of language learning, precisely because it brings along multiple cultural aspects that in most cases cannot be translated literally to other languages. So a functional and effective way to approach contrastive phraseology is needed to make it naturally integrated in the foreign language acquisition.
It is quite an illusion to think, as even literate people sometimes do, that meaning are the same in all languages, that languages differ only in the forms used for those meanings (Lado, 1957: 77).
This PhD is inspired on the theoretical framework based on some principles of cognitive grammar, developed by Langacker, whose assumptions represented some of the emerging points for cognitive linguistics. This approach is suitable for tackling contrastive phraseology with a more realistic and contextual perspective.
The interest of this research is particularly relevant because of the pair of languages it is focalized on. In fact, Italian phraseology is a quite unexplored field of study. In Italy, phraseology has historically been more centred in diachronical linguistics. Consequently, phraseology has been left in the margins of research, regarded as an area only meritorious to be considered from a dialectal an oral perspective. This lack of regulation has as a consequence a low consideration of phraseology as a praiseworthy subject by itself.
Studies such as this PhD research, which is applied in Italy and considers Spanish as a contrast language to be compared to Italian, will help to the construction of a solid base for phraseology studies. This will foster good visions on the issue and motivate the implementation of further research in this field.
On the contrary, the grow of phraseology has been significant in Spain, where the study of what are considered complex lexical structures of idiomatic nature (idioms, routine formulas, etc.) and paremiology (dedicated to the study of paremias) has increased during the last decades. Scholars’ work and research teams have laid the theoretical-practical foundations for the critical analysis of both paremiological and idiomatic expressions. This dedication has unified these expressions and raised them to the rank of a discipline . Contrarily, the phraseological and paremiological research in Italy has travelled different paths (Durante, 2014: 8).
Este marcado afán crítico por parte de los investigadores españoles, o bien hispanistas, en la labor de tipificación y descripción de los mecanismos de funcionamiento de la fraseología, no se corresponde, ni por asomo, con las muy escasas contribuciones que los investigadores italianos han aportado al estudio de su propia fraseología. Por contra, un muy nutrido elenco de repertorios de refranes, testimonios de una dedicación a medio camino entre lo tradicional folclórico y la tradición culta románica, rebajada a popular, ha ido acrecentando el conocimiento de la «filosofía vulgar» en territorio italiano. A eso mismo se debe el que la anunciada creación de corpus textuales, basados en datos comparables a nivel interlingüístico, esté aún en mantillas y no solo en lo que a fraseología español-italiana se refiere, sino que se trata de un fenómeno mucho más generalizado que atañe a un número mayor de lenguas (Durante, 2014: 7).
This PhD provides elements of knowledge that will ensure the consideration of phraseology in the foreign language didactics. The solid presence of phraseology in language syllabuses should be encouraged so that, eventually, ulterior improvements that involve phraseology in foreign language teaching will ascertain an elevation of this discipline to a higher level.
The fact of contrasting Spanish and Italian phraseology in a context of classroom learning is presented as a starting point for future teaching strategies.
It is also indispensable to understand what kind of difficulties foreign learners face. This knowledge will lead to a major comprehension of phraseodidactics procedures and will bring better teaching methodologies, based on solid empirical research. This research should be focused on the acquisition process of these elements (Weinert, 1995, cited by Wray, 2000; Ellis, 1997; Lennon, 1998); the strategies involved in their learning (Nattinger, DeCarrico, 1992: 65) or the influence by L1 on L2 (Swan, 1997).
Recognizing the difficulties students are encountered with will offer a support from which to build an effective methodology in phraseodidactics.
There is a need of research about the processes of acquisition of phraseology by foreign learners. It is necessary to know when and how phraseological units intervene in the linguistic competence (Howarth, 1998: 29).
Detecting how learners deal with interference elements such as interlanguage homonymies, for instance, will provide a base from which a clearer methodology may be implemented.
We will also be focused on considering the ways in which the mother tongue can support, fail to support or actively hinder someone who is learning or using the vocabulary of a second language (Swan, 1997: 156).
In summary, the phenomenon to be researched in this project is the interaction of native languages and foreign language learning in the process of phraseology comprehension. A research developed in the light of previous investigation in the area of phraseology comprehension in foreign language didactics.
Heredia and Cieślicka’s (2015) studies conform a substantial base from which this PhD is inspired. In their work, the issue of interaction between languages is confronted. Specifically, they address the way bilinguals acquire, store, and process figurative language, such as idiomatic expressions, metaphors and irony, and how these tropes might interact in real time across the bilingual’s languages.
In the same line of research, according to other results, it is concluded that L1 has a powerful influence in learners’ metaphorical competence.
The results suggest that the L1 influences L2 learners’ comprehension even at higher proficiency levels. Specifically, the analysis reveals that L1 conceptual and linguistic knowledge and L1 frequency influence L2 figurative language comprehension, and their influence varies depending on the amount of context provided (Türker, 2016: 41).
Agreeing with these mentioned earlier studies, this PhD intends to add more knowledge to this issue.
Although the results of this study provide some insight into L2 processing of metaphorical expressions and suggest directions for future research, they do not imply that L2 figurative language comprehension depends solely on the three L1 factors investigated. How learners make sense of metaphorical expressions partly relies on their cognitive ability to infer metaphorical meaning: their general conceptualizing capacity or relevant embodied experiences. Other factors such as linguistic realizations (compositionality, saliency, familiarity, etc.) may also affect learners’ processing. It is likely that L2 metaphor acquisition is affected by various cofactors on a continuum that includes L1 conceptual mapping and context. More research on hybrid approaches is required to better understand L2 learning of figurative language (Türker, 2016: 42).
Following this line of research, thus, this PhD proposes a hybrid approach which helps understand better how L2 learners understand and interpret figurative language, taking into account several factors such as linguistic and cultural background, compositionality and familiarity.
The research has been framed within the fundamental basics of linguistic investigation, upon which the development towards current perspectives has been tackled. Consequently, the foundations of the theoretical framework are based on an evolutive procedure. Through it, the researcher pursues the aim of moving from the earliest findings to the recent results achieved by scholars and investigative work in the field of study.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Phraseology is a relatively new branch of study in the field of linguistics, which emerges not only by developing its own theoretical framework, but also applies the results from this description into lexicography, contrastive linguistics and didactics. Consequently, phraseology is a rather recent face of didactic research given that, up to a certain moment, it had not been seriously considered by linguistic studies. That is the reason why it remains a considerably undiscovered topic, or at least, a territory in which much attention can still be drawn.
It is known that phraseology plays a vital role in the process of L2 acquisition as it includes aspects related to the cultural context. This aspect sometimes does not derive into the corresponding attention that its learning requires. Therefore, this project intends to improve the knowledge in this area and to arise it to international studies, in order to eventually help to achieve the goal that linguists and language teachers both have to commit to.
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages establishes the proficiency level of language acquisition regarding the level of comprehension and production of the speakers across different spheres, among them the cultural one. Without phraseology this becomes unattainable.
This lately awakening has brought some research in foreign language learning regarding the field of phraseology. Investigation has proved very interesting when applied to the sphere of links between similar languages, establishing a procedure of comparison and contrast and in order to reveal both resemblances and divergences.
The didactic approach to be employed in the foreign language learning process is the basic root from which a functional methodology is developed. Here is when linguistics and didactics come together to reach a more renovated theoretical framework. Applied linguistics has integrated the principles or theories of linguistics principles to certain more or less practical matters. Second language teaching is one of the areas of practical application .
The principles set by cognitive linguistics become alternatives to the formalist theories that has ruled linguistic premises during the last half century. Cognitive linguistics proves an ideal position when researching an appropriate methodology to teach phraseology, since it is based on human experience and mental cognitive capacities, more than on static grammatical rules. Their theorists believe in mental constructions structured in different degrees of complexity. Cognitive linguistics regards language as both cognitive and sociocultural, lying in models of communicative activity. This makes it a suitable perspective from which to consider social aspects such as phraseology.
OBJECTIVES The interest of this research is particularly relevant because of the pair of languages it is focalized on. Actually, Italian phraseology is a quite unexplored field of study, as it has historically been more centred in diachronical linguistics. Consequently, phraseology has been mostly left in the margins of research, regarded as an area traditionally only meritorious to be considered from a dialectal and oral perspective. This lack of regulation brings with it a low consideration of phraseology as a praiseworthy subject itself. As a consequence, studies such as this PhD research, to be applied in Italy and considering Spanish as a contrast language to be compared to Italian, will help to the construction of a solid base that fosters good visions on the issue and motivates more research within the field.
The second point of interest of the research is the didactic approach by which phraseology is regarded. As a result, phraseodidactics is the fundamental issue to be considered. Phraseodidactics means the practical implementation of linguistic and learning theories on phraseology, and it is in this connection that this research is intended.
Consequently, this investigation will take the form of an applied experimentation on language learning and phraseology. The main aim of the project is to unveil the phraseological competence involved in the learning of a foreign language and which aspects are concerned with it. This objective will have consequences in the didactic field, as analysing what are the factors that allow – or impede – the development of this competence will favour the achievement of a better approach in language learning disciplines. The main factors to be considered will be the role of first and other languages, as well as other aspects, such as contextualization and cognitive strategies.
This research is also constructive on the issue of interlanguage influence, a field in which the investigation about the effect of additional languages in plurilinguals has been rather underexplored so far, since attention has been more focused on the effect of mother-tongue languages. Eventually, the intention in this thesis is to deepen in the strategies applied by the students, according to their linguistic profile; and to analyse if learning is affected, either positively or negatively.
In order to confine the observable reality that will in turn allow an approachable exploration of the phraseological competence, the factor of interest in this thesis will be the comprehension of figurative language. The consensus of a high number of studies focused on this issue, though, is based predominantly on research with single language users. Contrarily, the question posed in this research is whether, among users of two or more languages, a similar pattern would emerge. This is the reason why this thesis becomes necessary in the exploratory work of phraseodidactics, as it will also analyse the influence that a third or additional language might have on the level and strategies of comprehension, as revealed by the learners.
How the students make sense of figurative expressions partly relies on their cognitive ability to infer metaphorical meanings, which is related to their general conceptualizing capacity of relevant embodied experiences. That is why figurative and metaphorical competences are intimately linked, and in this thesis they will be both considered as a whole. Factors such as linguistic realizations – compositionality, familiarity, etc. – may also affect learners’ processing of figurative or metaphorical meaning, so these are aspects to be explored in this project.
In summary, it is likely that L2 metaphor acquisition is affected by various cofactors on a continuum that includes L1 conceptual mapping and context. Actually, more research on hybrid approaches is required to better understand L2 learning of figurative language (Türker, 2016: 42). The research question posed in this thesis will hopefully contribute to provide more insightful perspectives to better enhance the knowledge about L2 learning of figurative language.
On the other hand, foreign language methodologies concerning phraseology are rooted on the approach assumed regarding the psycholinguistic decomposition process of these linguistic elements.
Precisely, this is the sense in which the learners’ strategies will be analysed. Cognitive strategies in this phraseodidactic investigation make reference to the decomposition process that students develop in order to reach an effective understanding of a phraseological and/or metaphorical structure. Thus, exploring this procedure is one of the aims of this investigation. The deeper understanding of this question will help establish more solid bases from which to build competent and firm phraseodidactical methodologies.
In summary, the objectives of the study are: 1. To implement a phraseodidactic inquiry in which the metaphorical and figurative competence of foreign language learners is analysed.
2. To discern the individual factors involved in the metaphorical and figurative competence: the role of first and other languages, interlanguage influence and familiarity.
3. To determine the impact of the diverse kinds of phraseological and metaphorical expressions on the cognitive strategies involved in the comprehension of language.
4. To uncover the influence of the diverse characteristics of phraseological and metaphorical figures on the cognitive strategies involved in the comprehension of language: compositionality, layer of equivalence.
5. To reveal the psycholinguistic decomposition process developed by plurilingual learners of phraseological and metaphorical elements.
CONCLUSIONS The unveiling of the phraseological competence involved in the learning of a foreign language, and the aspects concerned with it, have been the main issue of interest in this thesis. Besides, the pair of languages it has been focused on is particularly relevant in the phraseodidactics field, as the building of a foundation on which Italian phraseology and its didactics is developed is essential if compared with the field development in other languages.
Resuming the objectives of this thesis, it can be affirmed that they have been mainly accomplished. The very first aim of the investigation established the implementation of a phraseodidactic inquiry in which the metaphorical and figurative competence of foreign language learners is analysed. From this purpose, the recognition of the individual factors involved in the metaphorical and figurative competence has been developed, paying special attention to the role of first and other languages, relating them to the interlanguage influence. Familiarity has been another referential factor of interest, as well as the determination of the impact of the diverse kinds of phraseological and metaphorical expressions on the cognitive strategies involved in the comprehension of language. The characteristics involved have comprised the degree of compositionality and the layer of equivalence of the elements of the corpus, which have been related to the psycholinguistic decomposition processes of phraseological and metaphorical elements developed by the learners.
From the objectives of this research project, four main assumptions have been determined. At the end of this investigation, and by means of the research methodology developed, the assumptions have been either confirmed or denied, in some cases with nuances that lead to a thorough or partial conclusion. The uncertainty of some of the results should work as an incentive for further research that explores more conscientiously the factors affecting the conditions of learning. On the other hand, in a social area as learning sciences, the human factor is a strong condition that might easily lead to variable results.
In summary, the assumptions of the thesis have been confirmed in some cases, whereas partly confirmed in others:
1) The broader is learners’ linguistic background, the higher is their phraseological and metaphorical competence in a foreign language (interlinguistic influence).
Partly confirmed The measure of the linguistic background has been elaborated regarding the learners’ previous known languages, including dialects, native and foreign languages. The main hypothesis established that the intercomprehension of unknown elements in the target language is directly proportional to the broadness of the learner’s linguistic background. Besides, the intercomprehension was supposed to be higher correspondingly to the level of bilingualism or plurilingualism of the subjects.
From the results retrieved, the hypothesis is partly confirmed, as the higher phraseological and metaphorical competence shown in correct results are seen in the categories of high bilingualism with high-level of Spanish and with high plurilingualism and low-level of Spanish. The same seems to be revealed by the group with low bilingualism and low-level of Spanish, which attains the lowest metaphorical competence level, outcome that is coherent with the assumption.
However, the group of students with low plurilingualism and high-level of Spanish and the one formed by high plurilinguals with high-level of Spanish contradict the previous conclusions, as the metaphorical and figurative competence of the students in these categories are inferior, even if their linguistic background is supposed to be rich. The result obtained by the group with low plurilingualism and low-level of Spanish is also contradictory, as they acquire a surprisingly high score.
In conclusion, these contradictions observed do not allow a confirmation of the assumption. Consequently, it is necessary to affirm that the assumption is not fully accomplished.
2) Familiarity will be a significant factor when considering the phraseological and metaphorical competence of learners who deal with foreign language elements (encyclopaedic knowledge).
Partly confirmed The aim of this part of the investigation is to confirm the theory according to which culture is a determinant factor when applying comprehensive learning strategies. As a result, it is assumed that the familiarity the students in this research display towards certain elements presented in the study will be decisive in their phraseological and metaphorical competence.
Once again, the results point to a contradiction in this part of the investigation. Actually, the level of metaphorical and phraseological competence of the subjects is quite satisfactory. Thus, this homogeneity reveals an ambiguity that does not allow a total confirmation of the assumption. Nevertheless, the subtly low metaphorical competence displayed by the learners when the unfamiliarity level arises might point to a slight confirmation of the hypothesis. On the other hand, several factors that are clearly influencing on the abilities displayed by the learners have been considered and analysed, such as the intercultural influence, the metaphorical and figurative competence, and the encyclopaedic and contextual information, all of which might interact with one another and lead to equivocal results.
3) Phraseological and metaphorical competence varies depending on the semantic compositionality (semantic compositionality influence).
Confirmed The hypothesis derived from this assumption is related to the idiomatic character of a phraseological unit, which is supposed to be inversely proportional to the learner’s ability to interpret it correctly. Consequently, it is assumed that the learner will infer the non-literal meaning from the literal meaning of the expression (see the metasemantic hypothesis by Nippold, Rudzinski, 1993; and Levorato, Cacciari, 1995, 1999).
It is presumed that the meaning of the components in an expression is the gateway to access the meaning of the whole phraseological unit. As a result, in compositional elements subjects are supposed to give more idiomatic interpretations, while in non-compositional expressions, literal readings would prevail. As a consequence, in non-compositional cases, the metaphorical and figurative competence are supposed to be reduced, as the learners’ ability to interpret a message idiomatically is to be reduced in the cases when the element does not present compositionality.
The results prove that the assumption is accomplished, even if with discrete observations. Certainly, in compositional phraseological units, the learners give more idiomatic interpretations, while in non-compositional cases they provide literal interpretations, thus displaying a lower ability to interpret a message idiomatically in expressions with a high degree of idiomatic character.
4) Phraseological and metaphorical competence varies depending on the interlanguage equivalence level of the elements (interlanguage equivalence influence).
Confirmed This assumption establishes that the phraseological and metaphorical competence is directly proportional to the degree of interlanguage equivalence. The hypothesis is confirmed.
Nevertheless, an apparently contradictory outline is replicated in the examination, as there is the predisposition for the subjects to present a superior accuracy in the second partial equivalence, as related to the first equivalence cases. This might be explained by side factors such as the encyclopaedical knowledge of the students and the context of presentation of the elements. Besides, the learners might rely on other cognitive strategies in the cases where they detect that interlanguage equivalence is not as trustable as in other elements. Thus, the hypothesis according to which the decompositional process performed by the learners is to be different depending on the degree of equivalence is confirmed, even if not exactly in the tendency previously assumed.
Certainly, cognitive mechanisms are applied and modified in order to develop more effective strategies, and this fact might explain the incongruity presented in this part of the study. On the other hand, the adaptable character of the learning processes, where the language learners’ flexibility allows them to adapt their metaphorical and figurative competence to the conditions of use and learning context, is once again proved.
Finally, the assumption is considered to be wholly accomplished as in general terms the ability of the learners is better in the cases of total equivalence with regard to partial equivalent elements.
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