Camillo Boito showed the way to a modern and scienti c approach to architectural conservation in Europe, as opposed to the positions of stylistic restoration or of anti-restoration advocated respectively by Eugène Viollet- le-Duc and John Ruskin. Differentiating the old from the new and pointing out their contributions were two of his main achievements. These would be followed by the defenders of the Athens Charter (1931), especially by very important gures in conservation in Europe during the rst half of the 20th century, such as Gustavo Giovannoni and Leopoldo Torres Balbás, who left a long-lasting legacy in Spain and Italy. The two had a rather personal and epistolary relationship; they were both interested in theory, and were researchers of the history of architecture and conservators who in uenced the laws of heritage conservation in their countries.
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