Cumbres borrascosas en contexto: singularidad hermenéutica en tradiciones narrativas
- Autores: María Valero Redondo
- Directores de la Tesis: Julián Jiménez Heffernan (dir. tes.)
- Lectura: En la Universidad de Córdoba (ESP) ( España ) en 2018
- Idioma: español
- Tribunal Calificador de la Tesis: José Antonio Álvarez Amorós (presid.), Paula Martín Salván (secret.), Philip Shaw (voc.)
- Programa de doctorado: Programa de Doctorado en Lenguas y Culturas por la Universidad de Córdoba; la Universidad de Extremadura; la Universidad de Huelva y la Universidad de Jaén
- Materias:
- Enlaces
- Tesis en acceso abierto en: Helvia
- Resumen
1. Introducción o motivación de la tesis A pesar de ser un clásico – o quizás por esta razón – los críticos siempre han considerado Cumbres Borrascosas como un texto con un significado impenetrable. El propósito de esta tesis es combatir el agotamiento hermenéutico en torno a Cumbres Borrascosas. Mi metodología consistirá, por tanto, en hacer un análisis temático-comparativo de la novela con otros textos del siglo dieciocho y principios del diecinueve. En The True Story of the Novel, Margaret Anne Doody afirma que los escritores del siglo diecinueve tenían gran contacto con los escritores del siglo dieciocho. Así, si tiramos de los hilos de una novela del diecinueve, éstos nos llevarán siempre hacia atrás. Según Margaret-Ann Doody, la herencia genética de la novela está siempre presente y toda novela tiene una cadena de relaciones literarias mayor que la indicada por las alusiones explícitas que contiene. Todo novelista (bueno o malo, mejor o peor, fantástico o realista) repite los tropos de la Novela misma (Doody 299), y es precisamente en estos tropos en los que basaré mi análisis comparativo. Por tanto, trataré de identificar las características que Cumbres Borrascosas comparte con Pamela (Samuel Richardson), los cuentos de Heinrich von Kleist, The Monk (Matthew Lewis), Manfred (Lord Byron), Shirley y Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë), Barry Lyndon (William Thackeray), y Oliver Twist (Charles Dickens), entre otras.
2. Contenido de la investigación En el Capítulo 2, “An Overview of Wuthering Heights,” resumo los principales análisis críticos que la novela de Emily Brontë ha recibido desde su publicación en 1848 y expongo las lagunas y deficiencias de estas aproximaciones críticas. Con este propósito, organizo estas revisiones críticas en dos grupos: 1) aquellos críticos que postulan la existencia de un significado determinado recuperable que puede ser material/immanente (determinismo sociológico), o espiritual/transcendental (determinismo temático); y, 2) aquellos críticos que postulan la existenica de un significado indeterminado (deconstrucción). Quiero alinearme con los críticos que valoran sobre todo la heterogeneidad y el valor múltiple del texto, pero pretendo hacer algo que estos críticos nunca han intentado deliberadamente: enriquecer esta heterogeneidad examinando la relación dialógica con textos previos. Así, propongo un nuevo grupo crítico que plantea un determinismo intertextual de la novela. Mi objetivo es justificar la extrañeza del texto analizando los posibles precedentes de Cumbres Borrascosas; vencer la parálisis crítica que rodea la novela y su lugar indeterminado dentro de la tradición narrativa inglesa; y demostrar que la novela de Emily Brontë no es sui generis. El crítico Edward Said resume perfectamente mi premisa: “La literatura es un orden excéntrico de repeticiones, no de originalidad” (Beginnings 12, mi traducción). Por tanto: En el Capítulo 3, “Wuthering Heights: “The Housekeeper’s Tale,” argumento que el aspecto más revolucionario de esta novela conecta la teoría marxista con la narratología: es una de las primeras veces en la literatura victoriana que un personaje de clase baja, Nelly Dean, cuenta la historia, violando el código social. En este sentido, la novela adquiere un pedigrí picaresco que sólo puede encontrarse en algunas novelas del siglo dieciocho: Tom Jones, Moll Flanders, Robinson Crusoe, y Pamela. En su papel de consejera en la novela, Nelly Dean adquiere una posición de subalternidad social, pero autoridad moral. La originalidad de la novela reside pues en “la representación vocal de una transgresión social” (Jiménez Heffernan 235, mi traducción). Esto conlleva unas consecuencias éticas: 1) la narración polifónica de Nelly exterioriza las perspectivas que los discursos sociales hegémónicos habían silenciado; 2) el discurso de Nelly constituye una contra-historia; 3) esto permite al lector posicionarse en posiciones ideólogicas dispares, lo que acerca a la novela a la ficción moderna y postmoderna.
En el Capítulo 4, “Wuthering Heights and Kleist’s Novellen: Rousseaunian Nature, Implosive Communities and Performative Subversion of the Law,” argumento que Cumbres Borrascosas es bastante consistente con la tradición alemana de la Novelle, y, especialmente, con las narraciones de Kleist. Uno de los temas prevalentes en los cuentos de Kleist y en Cumbres Borrascosas es el ferviente deseo de escapar de una civilización corrupta que frustra los sentimientos más sinceros de los personajes. Con este propósito, los personajes conciben tres estrategias de sabotaje de la comunidad normativa: 1) escapar a un escenario natural que promueve la autenticidad y la confraternidad cristiana; 2) la implosión anómica y erótica de los amantes; 3) la reiteración paródica de la comunidad normativa que comporta una subversión implícita.
En el Capítulo 4, “Wuthering Heights: A Gothic Novel,” comparo Cumbres Borrascosas con la novela de Matthew Lewis, The Monk, entre otras novelas. Aquí analizo cómo Cumbres Borrascosas se apropia de motivos Góticos para explorar cuestiones de genealogías fragmentadas y contaminadas, expósitos, venganza, subrogación, violencia, locura, sucesos sobrenaturales, y compulsiones históricas/domésticas. Argumento que la novela de Emily Brontë muestra la inestabilidad de la división artificial entre novelas góticas y domésticas, y que el mayor logro de E. Brontë es poner lo doméstico al servicio de lo gótico.
En el capítulo 5, “Wuthering Heights: An Epic Poem” empleo el poema de Lord Byron, Manfred, como co-texto literario que ilumina tanto formal como temáticamente algunas partes de la novela. En este capítulo, intento demostrar que tanto Manfred como Cumbres Borrascosas poseen un componente épico-dramático que tiene su origen en el poema épico de Milton, Paradise Lost. Por ende, me centro en la cualidad poética de los discursos más fervientes y elegíacos de la novela; en la comunión de los personajes con una naturaleza salvaje; en las comunidades transcendentales de amantes; en los lutos elegíacos; en Manfred y Heathcliff, dos héroes fatales; y en cómo Cumbres Borrascosas explota y critica el Byronismo simultáneamente. Finalmente, afirmo que la estructura profunda de la novela es un drama épico cuyo protagonista es un personaje Satánico y Byroniano, y que la novela contiene una constelación de temas que tiene su origen en la tradición Romántica inglesa.
En el capítulo 6, “Wuthering Heights: A Social Novel,” trato de desafiar la afirmación de Winifred Gérin de que Cumbres Borrascosas “no expone cuestiones sociales” (42, mi traducción), y hago una lectura materialista de Cumbres Borrascosas que se centra en razones históricas contingentes. Así pues, reformulo la afirmación de Fredrich Jameson de que “Heathcliff es el locus de la Historia” y defiendo que Heathcliff es en realidad el locus de la infraestructura ya que integra cuatro tipos de alteridades infraestructurales: el proletario, el sujeto colonial, el soldado e, indirectamente, la condición de la mujer. Con este objetivo, he dividido el capítulo en cuatro secciones y he seleccionado tres novelas diferentes que me permiten leer Cumbres Borrascosas como una novela social que expone – o no – cuatro tipos de infraestructura. Así, utilizo la novela de Charlotte Brontë, Shirley, como el texto matricial que mejor representa la voz del proletario y “la Cuestión de la Mujer,” y que me permitirá leer Cumbres Borrascosas como una novela sobre la “Condición de Inglaterra;” Jane Eyre es el texto que me permitirá leer Cumbres Borrascosas como una “novela colonial;” y la novela de William Thackeray, Barry Lyndon, me permitirá leer la historia no contada de Heathcliff como la de un soldado reprimido por la estructura social.
En el capítulo 7, “Wuthering Heights: A Bildungsroman” leo la historia narrada – y no narrada – de Heathcliff como una potencial Bildungsroman, usando algunas novelas de Charles Dickens (David Copperfield, Nicholas Nickleby, Oliver Twist, etc.) y otras novelas del siglo diecinueve como filtro comparativo. Quizás Emily Brontë no tenía intención de escribir una Bildungsroman, pero la condición marginal de Heathcliff, su transición de “inocencia” a “experiencia” – o de “oprimido” a “opresor” – su posterior conversión en parvenu, y su autodeterminación convierten su historia en una especie de Bildungsroman. Es esta evolución de un estado natural (infancia e “inocencia”) a un estado social (madurez y “experiencia”) lo que me interesa aquí. He de añadir que me baso en el libro de Franco Moretti, The Way of the World (1987), para determinar si Cumbres Borrascosas encaja en el patrón de la Bildungsroman.
Mi argumento se funda en cuestiones históricas – Inglaterra no era un lugar tan plácido y aburrido como Moretti sugiere sino un lugar más turbulento – y en cuestiones temáticas: (a) la historia de Heathcliff es una historia de movilidad social (pero estancamiento psicológico); (b) el paradigma oposicional entre “bueno” y “malo” tan representativo de los cuentos de hadas queda cancelado en la novela, ya que Heathcliff representa ambiguamente el papel de héroe y villano; (c) la historia de ascensión social de Heathcliff muestra su gran individualidad, demostrando que él no es un personaje “común;” (d) esta movilidad social tiene lugar sin “el patrón de reconocimiento-herencia” tan común en las novelas de Dickens y a través de su taimado control de la ley; (e) el legado ideológico de Cumbres Borrascosas se encuentra en la literatura anterior; y, finalmente, (f) la venganza inconsciente de Heathcliff contra la ley revela sus contradicciones.
3. Conclusión El texto desarticulado y vestigial de Cumbres Borrascosas es la reliquia de una historia completa. Los espacios en blanco que intervienen al principio, en medio y al final de esta historia esquelética – que es, sobre todo, la historia de Heathcliff – son vacíos; huecos que ensombrecen, penetran y perforan los sucesos principales de la historia. Así, si como afirma Hillis Miller, una novela es “un tejido complejo de repeticiones y repeticiones dentro de repeticiones” (Fiction 2, mi traducción), quizás la pregunta que debemos plantearnos no es cuál es el punto de partida o la fuente original de la que Cumbres Borrascosas proviene, sino qué elementos resurgen a través de las diferentes configuraciones de los personajes y cuáles son las imágenes a las que la novela de Emily Brontë continuamente retorna. Lo que he intentado hacer en esta tesis es forzar al texto para que confiese. Mi principal esfuerzo como intérprete analítica ha sido extraer el secreto del texto, forzar su lengua para que declare y confiese; buscar sus fósiles; los hilos que llevan hacia sus orígenes, ya que el texto no los revela, o al menos, “no de forma literal o vulgar” (Henry James, The Turn of the Screw 3, mi traducción).
4. Bibliografía a) Primary Sources: Literary Works Austen, Jane. Mansfield Park. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008.
Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Ed. Fiona Stafford. London: Penguin Books. 2003.
Austen, Jane. Emma. Ed. Fiona Stafford. London: Penguin Books. 1996.
Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey. Ed. John Davies. Oxford: O.U.P. 1998.
Balzac, Honoré de. The Girl with the Golden Eyes and Other Stories. Trans. Peter Collier. Oxford: O.U.P. 2012.
Balzac, Honoré de. Père Goriot. Trans. A.J. Krailsheimer. Oxford: O.U.P. 2009.
Baudelaire, Charles. Fusées III in Journaux in Times. Paris: Georges Cres. 1919.
Brontë, Emily. Wuthering Heights. Oxford: O.U.P. 1998.
Brontë, Charlotte. Charlotte Brontë: Selected Letters. Oxford: O.U.P. 2010.
Brontë, Charlotte. Shirley. Ed. Sally Shuttleworth. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Brontë, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Ed. Sally Shuttleworth. Oxford: O.U.P. 2000.
Brontë, Charlotte. Villette. Ed. Margaret Smith and Herbert Rosengarten. Oxford: O.U.P.
Byron, George Gordon. Selected Poems. Eds. Susan J. Wolfson and Peter J. Manning. London: Penguin. 2005.
Dickens, Charles. Nicholas Nickleby. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Dickens, Charles. Oliver Twist. Ed. Philip Horne. London: Penguin Classics. 2003.
Dickens, Charles. Bleak House. Ed. Nicola Bradbury. London: Penguin Classics. 2003.
Dickens, Charles. David Copperfield. Ed. Nina Burgis. Oxford: O.U.P. 1999.
Dickens, Charles. The Old Curiosity Shop. Ed. Elizabeth M. Brennan. Oxford: O.U.P. 1998.
Dickens, Charles. Great Expectations. Ed. Margaret Cardwell. Oxford: O.U.P. 1998.
Dickens, Charles. Sketches by Boz. Ed. Dennis Walder. London: Penguin. 1995.
Diderot, Denis. The Nun. Trans: Goulbourne. Oxford: OUP. 2005.
Eliot, George. Adam Bede. Ed. Margaret Reynolds. London: Penguin. 1985.
Fielding, Henry. Joseph Andrews and Shamela. London: Penguin Books. 1999.
Gaskell, Elizabeth. The Life of Charlotte Brontë. London: Dent. 1974.
Godwin, William. Caleb Williams. Ed. David McCracken. Oxford: O.U.P. 1998.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship and Travels. Trans. Thomas Carlyle. London: Robson and Sons. 1874.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. The Sorrows of Young Werther. Trans. David Constantine. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2012.
James, Henry. The Tragic Muse. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 1982.
James, Henry. The Turn of the Screw. London: Dent. 1975.
Kleist, Heinrich von. The Marquise of O. and Other Stories. Ed. Reeves and Luke. London: Penguin Classics. 1978.
Lewis, Matthew. The Monk. Ed. Howard Anderson. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Maturin, Charles. Melmoth the Wanderer. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Milton, John. Paradise Lost. Oxford: O.U.P. 1973.
More, Thomas. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought: Utopia. Eds. George M. Logan and Robert M. Adams. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2006.
Richardson, Samuel. Pamela. Ed. Thomas Keymer. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Richardson, Samuel. Clarissa. Ed. Angus Ross. London: Penguin. 2004.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Julie, or, The New Heloise: Letters of Two Lovers who Live in a Small Town at the Foot of the Alps. Trans. Philip Stewart and Jean Vaché. Hanover: Dartmouth College. England. 1997.
Schiller, Friedrich. The Robbers. Cambridge: Chadwyck-Healey. 1996.
Scott, Sir Walter. The Bride of Lammermoor. Ed. Fiona Robertson. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Scott, Sir Walter. The Heart of the Midlothian. Ed. Claire Lamont. Oxford: O.U.P. 1982.
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. London: Penguin Books. 2003.
Shelley, Mary. The Last Man. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Thackeray, William. Vanity Fair. Ed. Andrew Sanders. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Thackeray, William. Roundabout Papers. New York: Harper and Brothers. 1916.
Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. Eds. R.L. Brett and A.R. Jones. London: Routledge. 1988.
b) Secondary Sources: Criticism Abel, Elizabeth, Marianne Hirsch and Elizabeth Langland (Eds.). The Voyage In: Fictions of Female Development. Hanover: University Press of New England. 1983.
Abrams, M.H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford: O.U.P. 1971. Agamben, Giorgio. Infancy and History: Essays on the Destruction of Experience. Trans. Liz Heron. London: Verso. 1993.
Allan, Séan. The Stories of Heinrich von Kleist: Fictions of Security. London: Camden House. 2011. 2001.
Allen, Maggie. “Emily Brontë and the Influence of the German Romantic Poets.” Brontë Studies 30 (2005). 7-10.
Alliston, April. “Transnational Sympathies, Imaginary Communities.” The Literary Channel: The Inter-National Invention of the Novel. Eds. Margaret Cohen and Carolyn Dever. Princeton: Princeton UP. 2002.
Allot, Miriam. “Wuthering Heights: The Rejection of Heathcliff?” Essays in Criticism. 8.1 (1958): 27-47.
Althusser, Louis. On Ideology. New York: Verso. 2008.
Andriano, Joseph. Our Ladies of Darkness: Feminine Daemonology in Male Gothic Fiction. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press. 1993.
Armstrong, Nancy. “The Fiction of Bourgeois Morality and the Paradox of Individualism.” The Novel. Ed. Franco Moretti. Vol. 2. Princeton: Princeton University. 2006. 349-288. x --- How Novels Think: The Limits of British Individualism from 1719-1900. New York: Columbia University Press. 2005.
--- Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel. New York: Oxford University Press. 1987.
--- “Emily Brontë In and Out of her Time.” Genre 15.3 (1982).
Attridge, Derek. The Singularity of Literature. New York: Routledge. 2010.
Bailin, Miriam. The Sickroom in Victorian Fiction. The Art of Being III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1994.
Bakhtin, Mikhail M. “The Bildungsroman and Its Significance in the History of Realism.” Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Trans. Vern W. McGee. Eds. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press. 1986. 10-59.
--- The Dialogic Imagination. Ed. Michael Holquist. Austin: U. of Texas. 1981.
Baldick, Chris. “Introduction.” Melmoth the Wanderer. Oxford: Oxford OUP. 2008.
Barreca, Regina. “The Power of Excommunication: Sex and the Feminine Text in Wuthering Heights.” Sex and Death in Victorian Literature. Ed. Regina Barreca. London: Macmillan. 1999. 227-240.
Barthes, Roland. Criticism and Truth. Trans. Katrine Pilcher Keuneman. London: Continuum. 2007.
Bataille, Georges. “Emily Brontë”. Literature and Evil. Trans. Alastair Hamilton. London: Marion Boyars. 2006. 21-32.
--- Erotism: Death and Sensuality. Trans. Mary Dalwood. San Francisco: City Lights Book. 1986.
Bejamin, Walter. The Storyteller.” Illuminations. Trans. Harry Zohn. Glasgow: Fontana. 1973.
Benziman, Galia. “Who Stole the Child?: Missing Babies and Blank Identities in Early Dickens.” Dickens and the Imagined Child. Eds. P. Merchant and C. Waters. Aldershot: Ashgate Press. 2015. 27-40.
Bersani, Leo. “Desire and Metamorphosis.” A Future for Astyanax. New York: Columbia University Press. 1984. 189-229.
Bettelheim, Bruno. The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales. London: Harmondsworth. 1978 Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London; New York: Routledge. 2004.
Blanchot, Maurice. The Unavowable Community. Trans. Pierre Joris. Barrytown (NY): Station Hill. 1998.
Bloom, Harold. Novelists and Novels. New York: Checkmark Books. 2007.
--- “Milton.” Ruin the Sacred Truths: Poetry and Belief from the Bible to the Present. Harvard: Harvard UP. 1991. 91-113.
--- “Milton and His Precursors.” A Map of Misreading. Oxford: Oxford U.P. 1975. 125-143.
--- The Visionary Company: A Reading of English Romantic Poetry. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1971.
--- “The Internalization of Quest-Romance.” Romanticism and Consciousness: Essays in Criticism. New York: WW Norton. 1970. 3-24.
Bodenheimer, Rosemarie. “Dickens and the Knowing Child.”Eds. P. Merchant and C. Waters. Aldershot: Ashgate Press. 2015. 13-26.
Boone, Joseph Allen. Tradition and Counter Tradition: Love and the Form of Fiction. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1987.
Booth, Wayne. The Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1961.
Botting, Fred. The Gothic. Cambridge: The English Association. 2001.
Bowen, John. Other Dickens: Pickwick to Chuzzlewit. Oxford: OUP. 2003.
Briggs, Asa. “Private and Social Themes in Shirley.” Brontë Society Transactions. 13:68. 1958. 203-19.
Brockmeier, Jens. “Narrative Psychology.” Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology. Ed. T. Teo. New York: Springer. 1218-1220.
Brooks, Peter. Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative. New York: Vintage. 1984.
Burke, Edmund. Reflections on the Revolution in France. Ed. J. G. A. Pocock. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. 1987.
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge. 2008.
--- Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative. New York; London: Routledge. 1997.
--- Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York: Routledge. 1993.
Calvino, Italo. Perché Leggere i Classici. Milán: Mondadori. 1995.
--- The Literature Machine: Essays. Trans. Patrick Creagh. London: Vintage Books. 1987.
--- The Uses of Literature: Essays. Trans. Patrick Creagh. London: Harcourt Brace. 1986.
Camilleri, Anna. “Byron, Milton, and the Satanic Heroine.” Byron’s Poetry. Ed. Peter Cochran. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2012. 70-81.
Carlyle, Thomas. Chartism. London: James Fraser. 1840.
Carroll, John (Ed.). Selected Letters of Samuel Richardson. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1964.
Carroll, Joseph, “The Cuckoo’s History: Human Nature in Wuthering Heights.” Philosophy and Literature 32, (2008): 241-257.
Carter, Ronald and John McRae. The Routledge History of Literature in English: Britain and Ireland. New York: Routledge. 2009.
Cavell, Stanley. Themes out of School: Effects and Causes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1988.
Cazamian, Louis. The Social Novel in England 1830-1850: Dickens, Disraeli, Mrs. Gaskell, Kingsley. Trans. Martin Fido. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1973.
Cecil, David. “Emily Brontë and Wuthering Heights.” Early Victorian Novelists: Essays in Revaluation. London: Constable and Co. 1934. 147-193.
Claeys, Gregory. The French Revolution Debate in Britain: The Origins of Modern Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2007.
Coetzee, J.M. Stranger Shores: Essays 1986-1999. London: Vintage. 2002.
Coleman, Deirdre. “Imagining Sameness and Difference: Domestic and Colonial Sisters in Mansfield Park.” A Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Claudia L. Johnson and Clara Tuite. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 2009. 292-304.
Crosby, Christina. The Ends of History: Victorians and “the Woman Question.” London: Routledge. 2003.
Davies, Stevie. Emily Brontë: Heretic. London: Women’s Press. 1994.
--- Emily Brontë. Great Britain: Harvester. 1988.
De Certeau, M. Heterologies: Discourse on the Other. Trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press. 1997.
Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. L’Anti-Aedipe. Capitalisme et Schizophrénie. Paris: Editions de Minuit. 1972.
Derrida, Jacques and Anne Dufourmantelle. Of Hospitality: Anne Dufourmantelle Invites Jacques Derrida to Respond. Stanford: Stanford UP. 2000.
Derrida, Jacques. Spectres de Marx. Paris: Galilée. 1973.
Dimnet, Ernest. Les Soeurs Brontë. Paris: Bloud. 1910.
Doody, Margaret Anne. The True Story of the Novel. New Brunswick: Rutgers University. 1997.
--- A Natural Passion: A Study of the Novels of Samuel Richardson. London: Oxford University Press. 1974.
Douglas-Fairhurst, Robert. Becoming Dickens: The Invention of a Novelist. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 2011.
Duncan, Ian. Modern Romance and Transformation of the Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2005.
Dunn, Richard J. “Backgrounds and Contexts.” Wuthering Heights, by Emily Brontë. New York: A Norton Critical Edition. 2003. 259-351.
Eagleton, Terry. Myths of Power: A Marxist Study of the Brontës. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2005.
--- The English Novel: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 2005.
--- Heathcliff and the Great Hunger: Studies in Irish Culture. London: Verso. 1996.
Elfenbein, Andrew. Byron and the Victorians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1995.
Ellis, Markman. The History of Gothic Fiction. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh. 2007.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Emerson’s Essays. London: Dent. 1976.
Esty, Jed. Unseasonable Youth: Modernism, Colonialism, and the Fiction of Development. New York: Oxford University Press. 2011.
Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markman. London: Pluto Press. 2008.
Farrell, John Philip. Revolution as Tragedy: The Dilemma of the Moderate from Scott to Arnold. London: Cornell University Press. 1980.
Fiedler, Leslie A. Love and Death in the American Novel. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 1982.
Filmer, Robert. Patriarcha; or the Natural Power of Kings. London: R. Chiswel. 1680.
Foucault, Michel. The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. London: Routledge. 2005.
--- “Society Must Be Defended:” Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-76. Eds: Mauro Bertani and Alessandro Fontana. Trans. David Macey. New York: Picador. 2003.
--- Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Trans. Richard Howard. London: Routledge. 1997.
--- Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage. 1995.
Frank, Frederick S. “The Gothic Romance – 1762-1820.” Horror Literature: A Core Collection and Reference Guide. Ed. Marshall Tymn. New York: Bowker. 1981. 3-175.
Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Trans: James Strachey. New York: Basic Books.
Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 1991.
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method. Trans. Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall. London: Continuum. 2006.
Gailus, Andreas. “Form and Chance: The German Novella.” The Novel. V.2. Ed. Franco Moretti. Oxford: Princeton University. 2006.
Gallagher, Catherine. The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction: Social Discourse and Narrative Form. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1985.
Gamer, Michael. Romanticism and the Gothic: Genre, Reception, and Canon Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000.
Garber, Frederick. Self, Text, and Romantic Irony: The Example of Byron. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1988.
Gargano, Elizabeth. “The Education of the Brontë’s New Nouvelle Héloïse in Shirley. SEL 44:4 (2004). 769-803.
Gezari, Janet. Last Things: Emily Brontë’s Poems. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2007.
--- Charlotte Brontë and Defensive Conduct: The Author and the Body at Risk. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. 1992.
Gérin, Winifred. Emily Brontë. Girona: Atlanta. 2008.
Gilbert, Sandra and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale University. 1984.
Glen, Heather. Charlotte Brontë: The Imagination in History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2002.
Goulbourne, Russell. “Introduction.” The Nun. Trans. Russell Goulbourne. Oxford: OUP. 2005.
Groom, Nick. “Introduction.” The Monk. Ed. Howard Anderson. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008. 7-38.
Guy, Josephine M. The Victorian Social-Problem Novel: The Market, the Individual and Communal Life. Houndmills: Macmillan Press. 1996.
Hafley, James. “The Villain in Wuthering Heights.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 13:3 (1958). 199-205.
Hammond, Brean and Shaun Regan. Making the Novel: Fiction and Society in Britain, 1600-1789. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2006.
Hegel, G.W.F. Outlines of the Philosophy of Right. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Heiland, Donna. “Confronting the Uncanny in the Brontës.” Gothic and Gender: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 2004. 114-128.
Help. The Claims of Labour: An Essay on the Duties of the Employers to the Employed. London: William Pickering. 1844.
Hillis Miller, J. The Conflagration of Community: Fiction Before and After Auschwitz. Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press. 2011.
--- On Literature. New York: Routledge. 2008.
--- Literature as Conduct: Speech Acts in Henry James. New York: Fordham University. 2005.
--- Others. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2001.
--- The Disappearance of God: Five Nineteenth Century Writers. Urbana; Chicago: University of Illinois. 2000.
--- Topographies. Standford: Standford UP. 1995. Print. --- Victorian Subjects. Hertforshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf. 1990.
--- Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1982.
--- Charles Dickens: The World of his Novels. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1970.
Hoeveler, Diane Long. Gothic Feminism: The Professionalization of Gender from Charlotte Smith to the Brontës. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. 1998.
Hogan, Patrick Colm. The Mind and Its stories: Narrative Universals and Human Emotion. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 2003.
Holderness, Graham. Wuthering Heights. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. 1985.
Homans, Margaret. “The Name of the Mother in Wuthering Heights.” Bearing the Word: Language and Female Experience in Nineteenth-Century Women’s Writing. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1968. 68-83.
Howe, Steven. Heinrich Von Kleist and Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Violence, Identity, Nation. New York: Camden House. 2012.
Huff, Steven R. Heinrich von Kleist’s Poetics of Passivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2013.
Ingham, Patricia. The Brontës: Authors in Context. Oxford: OUP. 2006.
Jacob, Carol. Uncontainable Romanticism: Shelley, Brontë, Kleist. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. 1989.
Jacobs, N. M. “Gender and Layered Narrative in Wuthering Heights and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall.” The Brontës. Ed. Patricia Ingham. Great Britain: Longman. 2003.
Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as Socially Symbolic Art. N.Y.: Routledge. 2008.
--- “The Experiments of Time: Providence and Realism.” The Novel. V.1. Ed. Franco Moretti. Oxford: Princeton University. 2006. 95-127.
--- “Postmodernism and Consumer Society.” Whitney Museum Lecture in fall. 1982. Web. 10 March 2018.
Jiménez Heffernan, Julián. “’Under the Force of the Law’: Communal Imagination and the Constitutional Sublime in Walter Scott’s The Bride of Lammermoor.” Liminal Discourses: Subliminal Tensions in Law and Literature. Eds. Daniela Carpi and Jeanne Gaakeer. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter and Co. 2013. 73-95.
--- “Togetherness and its Discontents.” Introduction to Community in Twentieth-Century Fiction. Ed. Julián Jiménez Heffernan, Paula Martín Salván, Gerardo Rodríguez Salas. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2013. 1-47.
--- “Pamela’s Hands: Political Intangibility and the Production of Manners.” Novel: A Forum on Fiction 46:1 (2013). 26-49.
--- “At the Court of Bellona”: Political and Libidinal Usurpation in Barry Lyndon.” Journal of Narrative Theory 44.2 (2014). 183-211.
--- “The Phonetic Archive. Vocality and Locality in European Regional Fiction from Maria Edgeworth to Ismail Kadaré.” Contemporary Developments in Emergent Literatures and the New Europe. Eds. César Domínguez & Manus O’Dwyer. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. 2014. 227-256.
Johnson, Edgar. “The Anatomy of Society.” Dickens: Bleak House. Ed. A. E. Dyson. London: Macmillan. 1969. 135-156.
Joseph, M. K. Byron the Poet. London: V. Gollancz. 1964.
Kavanagh, James. Emily Brontë. London: Blackwell. 1985.
Kermode, Frank. The Classic: Literary Images of Permanence and Change. N.Y.: The Viking Press. 1975.
Kettle, Arnold. “Emily Brontë: Wuthering Heights.” An Introduction to the English Novel. 1951. Reprint: New York: Harper. 1968. 130-45.
Keymer, Thomas and Peter Sabor. Pamela in the Marketplace: Literary Controversy and Print Culture in Eighteenth-century Britain and Ireland. Cambridge: C.U.P. 2005.
Khair, Tabish. The Gothic, Postcolonial and Otherness: Ghosts from Elsewhere. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 2009.
Kiely, Robert. The Romantic Novel in England. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1972.
Kilgour, Maggie. The Rise of the Gothic Novel. London: Routledge. 1995.
Kinkead-Weekes, Mark. Samuel Richardson, Dramatic Novelist. London: Methuen. 1973.
KirchKnopf, Andrea. “Character Constitution in Heinrich von Kleist’s Der Findling and Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights.” The AnaChronisT. 10 (2004): 31-45.
Kristeva, Julia. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. Trans. Leon S. Roudiez. New York: Columbia University Press. 1982.
Larson, Janet. “Oliver Twist and Christian Sculpture.” Oliver Twist. Ed. Fred Kaplan. New York: Norton Critical Edition. 1992.
Leavis, F.R. The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad. New York: Faber and Faber. 2011.
Leavis, Q. D. “A Fresh Approach to Wuthering Heights.” Wuthering Heights. London: Macmillan. 1993. 24-35.
Lenta, Margaret, “Capitalism or Patriarchy and Immoral Love: A Study of Wuthering Heights,” Theoria: A Journal of Studies in the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences 62: (1984).
Levinas, Emmanuel. Alterity and Transcendence. Trans. Michael B. Smith. Columbia: Columbia University Press. 2001.
--- Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority. Trans. Alphonso Lingis. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1991.
Lewalski, Barbara. “The Genres of Paradise Lost: Literary Genre as a Means of Accommodation.” Milton Studies 17. Ed. R.S. Ide and Joseph Wittreich. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. 1983.
Linder, Cynthia A. Romantic Imagery in the Novels of Charlotte Brontë. London: Springer. 1978.
Lovell, Ernest J. (Ed.). Medwin’s Conversations of Lord Byron. Princeton: Princeton U.P. 1966.
Macherey, Pierre. A Theory of Literary Production. Trans. Geoffrey Wall. London: Routledge. 1989.
Martín Salván, Paula. “Our Offering is Language”: Speech and Communication Disorders in the Narrative of Don DeLillo.” Literature and Psychoanalysis. Ed. F. Pereira. Instituto Superior de Psicología Aplicada: Lisboa. 2008.
Mathison, John K. “Nelly Dean and the Power of Wuthering Heights.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 11.2 (1956): 106-129.
Maynard, John R. “The Bildungsroman.” A Companion to the Victorian Novel. Eds. Patrick Brantlinger and William B. Thesing. Malden: Blacwell. 2005. 279-301.
McGann, Jerome. Byron and Romanticism. Ed. James Soderholm. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002.
McKeon, Michael. The Origins of the English Novel. London: Johns Hopkins University. 2002.
Merchant P. and C. Waters (Eds.). Dickens and the Imagined Child. Aldershot: Ashgate Press. 2015.
Meyer, Susan. Imperialism at Home: Race and Victorian’s Women Fiction. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1996.
Miller, Andrew. “Vanity Fair through Plate Glass.” Modern Language Association 105.5 (1990). 1042-1054.
Mitchell, Juliet. Women, the Longest Revolution. Michigan: Pantheon Books. 1984.
Moglen, Hélène. The Trauma of Gender: A Feminist Theory of the English Novel. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2001.
Moretti, Franco. “Serious Century.” The Novel. Ed. Franco Moretti. Vol. 2. Princeton: Princeton University. 2006. 364-400.
---The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. Trans. Albert Sbragia. London; New York: Verso. 2000.
Morris, Pam. Literature and Feminism. Oxford: Blackwell. 1996.
Morris, Rosalind C. Reflections on the History of an Idea: Can the Subaltern Speak? New York: Columbia UP. 2010.
Musselwhite, David. “Wuthering Heights: The Unacceptable Texts.” Partings Welded Together: Politics and Desire in the Nineteenth-Century English Novel. London: Methuen. 1987.
Nancy, Jean-Luc. The Inoperative Community. Ed. Peter Connor. Trans. Peter Connor et al. Foreword by Christopher Fynsk. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota. 2008.
Nelson, James G. “The Victorian Social Problem Novel.” A Companion to the Victorian Novel. Ed Baker and Womack. Connecticut: Greenwood. 2002.
Newlyn, Lucy. “The Prelude.” Cambridge Companion to Wordsworth. Ed. Stephen Gill. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2003. 55-69.
Nord, Deborah Epstein. Gypsies and the British Imagination, 1807-1930. New York: Columbia University Press. 2006.
Norrick, N.R. “Conversational Storytelling.” The Cambridge Companion to Narrative. Ed. D. Herman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007. 127-141.
Nünning, Vera. “The Ethics of Fictional Form: Persuasiveness and Perspective Taking form the Point of View of Cognitive Literary Studies.” Arcadia 50.1 (2015): 37-56.
Nussbaum, Martha, “Wuthering Heights: The Romantic Ascent”. Philosophy and Literature 20 (1996): 362-82.
O’Brien, Edna. Byron in Love. Great Britain: Phoenix. 2009.
Paris, Bernard J. “Wuthering Heights.” Imagined Human Beings: A Psychological Approach to Character and Conflict in Literature.” New York: New York University Press. 1997. 240-261.
Pater, Walter. Plato and Platonism. London: Macmillan. 1895.
Perry, Ruth. Novel Relations: The Transformation of Kinship in English Literature and Culture 1748-1818. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2006.
Praz, Mario. The Romantic Agony. Trans. Angus Davidson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1970.
Punter, David. The Literature of Terror: A History of Gothic Fictions from 1765 to the Present Day. London: Longman. 1980.
Pykett, Lyn. Women Writers: Emily Brontë. Maryland: Barnes and Noble. 1989.
Rawes, Alan. “1816-17: Childe Harold III and Manfred.” The Cambridge Companion to Byron. Ed. Drummond Bone. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004. 118-132.
Reeve, Clara. The Progress of Romance. 2 Vols. New York: Garland. 1970.
Reeves, Nigel. “Introduction.” The Marquise of O and Other Stories. Trans. David Luke and Nigel Reeves. London: Penguin Classics. 1978. 1-15.
Rena-Dozier, Emily. “Gothic Criticisms: Wuthering Heights and Nineteenth-Century Literary History.” ELH. 77 (2010): 757-775.
Richetti, John. The English Novel in History (1700-1780). New York: Routledge. 1999.
Robbins, Bruce. “A Portrait of the Artist as a Social Climber: Upward Mobility in the Novel.” The Novel. Ed. Franco Moretti. Vol. 2. Princeton: Princeton University. 2006. 409-435.
--- The Servant’s Hand: English Fiction from Below. Durham: Duke University Press. 1993.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Discourse upon the Origin and the Foundation of the Inequality among Mankind. Trans. Franklin Philip. Oxford: O.U.P. 2009.
--- Emile or On Education. Trans. Allan Bloom. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 1991.
Rudnik-Smalbraak, Marijke. Samuel Richardson: Minute Particulars Within the Large Design. Leiden: University of Leiden Press. 1983.
Ruskin, John. Sesame and Lilies. London: Electric Book. 2001.
Said, Edward W. Beginnings: Intention and Method. London: Granta Books. 1997.
--- Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage. 1994.
Schmitt, Cannon. “The Gothic Romance in the Victorian Period.” A Companion to the Victorian Novel. Eds. Patrick Brantlinger and William B. Thesing. Malden: Blacwell. 2005. 302-317.
Sharp, Andrew (Ed.). Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought: The English Levellers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004.
Shawcross, John (Ed.). Shelley’s Literary and Philosophical Criticism. London: O.U.P. 1909.
Shuttleworth, Sally (Ed.). “Introduction.” Shirley. Oxford: O.U.P. 2008.
Scholes, Robert. The Rise and Fall of English: Reconstructing English as a Discipline. Yale: Yale University Press. 1998.
Shore, Bradd. Culture in Mind: Cognition, Culture, and the Problem of Meaning. Oxford: Oxford UP. 1996.
Showalter, Elaine. The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980. London: Virago. 1987.
Simmons, James Richard. “Industrial and ‘Condition of England’ Novels. A Companion to the Victorian Novel. Eds. Patrick Brantlinger and William B. Thesing. Malden: Blackwell. 2005. 336-351.
Spark, Muriel and D. Stanford. Emily Brontë: Her Life and Work. London: Arena. 1985.
Spivak, Gayatri. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Reflections on the History of an Idea: Can the Subaltern Speak? Ed. Rosalind C. Morris. New York: Columbia UP. 2010.
--- “The New Historicism: Political Commitment and the Postmodern Critic.” The New Historicism. Ed. H. Aram Veeser. New York: Routledge. 1989.
--- “Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism.” Critical Enquiry. 12.1 (1985): 243-261.
Stafford, Fiona (Ed.). “Introduction.” Pride and Prejudice. London: Penguin Books. 2003.
Staten, Henry. Spirit Becomes Matter. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 2014.
Stevic, Aleksandar. “Fatal Extraction: Dickensian Bildungsroman and the Logic of Dependency.” Dickens Studies Annual. 45 (2014): 63-94.
Steedman, Carolyn. Strange Dislocations: Childhood and the Idea of Human Interiority, 1780-1930. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press; London: Virago. 1995.
Steinitz, Rebecca. “Diaries and Displacement in Wuthering Heights.” The Brontës. Ed. Patricia Ingham. Great Britain: Longman. 2003.
Stoneman, Patsy. Charlotte Brontë. Devon: Northcote House Publishers. 2013.
--- “Introduction.” Wuthering Heights. Oxford: University of Oxford. 1998.
--- “The Brontës and Death: Alternatives to Revolution.” The Sociology of Literature. (1978). 79-96.
Stuart Mill, John. The Subjection of Women. Ed. Jonathan Bennet. 2009. http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/mill1869.pdf Swales, Martin. The German Bildungsroman from Wieland to Hesse. Princeton. Princeton University Press. 1978.
Tanner, Tony. Jane Austen. Houndmills: Macmillan Press. 1986.
Taylor, Charles. Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2009.
--- Modern Social Imaginaries. Durham (Australia); London: Duke University Press. 2004.
Tillotson, Kathleen Mary. Novels of the Eighteen-Forties. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1971.
Todorov, T. The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other. Trans. R. Howard. New York: Harper Colophon Books. 1985.
Tönnies, Ferdinand. Community and Civil Society. Ed. Jose Harris. Trans. Jose Harris and Margaret Hollis. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 2001.
Tovey, Paige. “Betwixt Love and Knowledge.” Byron’s Poetry. Ed. Peter Cochran. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2012. 97-103.
Wang, Lisa. “The Holy Spirit in Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights and Poetry.” Literature & Theory. 14.2 (2000): 160-173.
Watkins, Daniel P. “The Dramas of Lord Byron: Manfred and Marino.” Byron. Ed. Jane Stabler. London: 1998. 52-65.
Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. London: Penguin. 1957.
Weil, Simone. “The Iliad, or the Poem of Force.” Chicago Review. 18.2 (1965): 1-26. Wellek, René. A History of Modern Criticism: 1750-1950. V.2. Yale: Yale University Press. 1958.
Williams, Raymond. The Long Revolution. London: The Hogarth Press. 1991.
--- Culture and Society: 1780-1950. New York: Columbia University. 1983.
Wilson, David. “Emily Brontë: First of the Moderns.” Moderns Quarterly Miscellany 1. (1947): 94-115. Woolf, Virginia. The Common Reader. South Australia: The University of Adelaide. 2015. https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter14.html Zweig, Stefan. Hölderlin, Kleist, and Nietzsche: The Struggle with the Daemon. London: Transaction Publishers. 2011.
