Raquel Criado
University of Murcia, English, Faculty Member
- Associate Professor, English Department, University of Murcia, Spainedit
https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol14no4.2 Criado, R., & González-Romero, P. (2023). Exploring first language use in non-formal foreign language education: A mixed-method approach. Arab World English Journal, 14(4), 19-45. In... more
https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol14no4.2
Criado, R., & González-Romero, P. (2023). Exploring first language use in non-formal foreign language education: A mixed-method approach. Arab World English Journal, 14(4), 19-45.
In Foreign Language Teaching, investigating the multiple variables that intervene in first language use is essential to uncover learning processes and design optimal teaching practices. Past studies have mainly focused on identifying teachers’ reasons for their first language use, while research on learners’ views is scarce. This mixed-method case study aims to provide a comprehensive description of first language use in a foreign language classroom through the examination of its pedagogical functions and the corresponding views held by the teacher and his students. This article adds to the scholarly body of knowledge about the role of first language use in Foreign Language Teaching with the yielding of constructive insights from non-formal education–a non-previously researched context. Specifically, this study was conducted in “Mar Menor” Center of Adult Education (Southern Spain). The main research questions address the quantification of the pedagogical functions of first language use generated by the instructor in certain classes and the comparison of his views with those of his students, concerning L1 use in general teaching and his sessions. Data comprised classroom observations, teacher’s stimulated recalls, students’ diaries and questionnaires addressed to both sets of participants. The results revealed the multifunctional nature of the teacher’s first language use and a fairly degree of alignment between his views and those of his students. This study underscores the importance of fostering learners’ agency. Furthermore, its findings can potentially inform Foreign Language Teaching by deepening the understanding of the myriad of factors and perspectives involved in first language use.
Keywords: Classroom observation, English as a Foreign Language, first language use, non-formal education, students’ views, teacher’s views
Criado, R., & González-Romero, P. (2023). Exploring first language use in non-formal foreign language education: A mixed-method approach. Arab World English Journal, 14(4), 19-45.
In Foreign Language Teaching, investigating the multiple variables that intervene in first language use is essential to uncover learning processes and design optimal teaching practices. Past studies have mainly focused on identifying teachers’ reasons for their first language use, while research on learners’ views is scarce. This mixed-method case study aims to provide a comprehensive description of first language use in a foreign language classroom through the examination of its pedagogical functions and the corresponding views held by the teacher and his students. This article adds to the scholarly body of knowledge about the role of first language use in Foreign Language Teaching with the yielding of constructive insights from non-formal education–a non-previously researched context. Specifically, this study was conducted in “Mar Menor” Center of Adult Education (Southern Spain). The main research questions address the quantification of the pedagogical functions of first language use generated by the instructor in certain classes and the comparison of his views with those of his students, concerning L1 use in general teaching and his sessions. Data comprised classroom observations, teacher’s stimulated recalls, students’ diaries and questionnaires addressed to both sets of participants. The results revealed the multifunctional nature of the teacher’s first language use and a fairly degree of alignment between his views and those of his students. This study underscores the importance of fostering learners’ agency. Furthermore, its findings can potentially inform Foreign Language Teaching by deepening the understanding of the myriad of factors and perspectives involved in first language use.
Keywords: Classroom observation, English as a Foreign Language, first language use, non-formal education, students’ views, teacher’s views
Criado, R. (2023). Patterns of textbook use in EFL: Adaptation techniques and their effects on Form-focused and Meaning-focused instruction. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 13(6), 924-972. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojml.2023.136054... more
Criado, R. (2023). Patterns of textbook use in EFL: Adaptation techniques and their effects on Form-focused and Meaning-focused instruction. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 13(6), 924-972. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojml.2023.136054
Researchers have highlighted the imperative need to perform studies on textbook use, given the acknowledged importance of textbooks as the primary teaching tool in foreign language classrooms and the roles of teachers in mediating the effects of textbooks on students’ learning. Furthermore, past research considering Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction in textbook use is scant. Thus, the aim of this multiple case study is to provide a comprehensive account of patterns of textbook use in the previously non-researched context of Spanish classrooms, both regarding adaptation techniques and the presence of Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction arising from the application of such techniques and the retained original textbook activities. One English as a Foreign Language session in three different educational centers was observed (213 minutes in total). The adaptation techniques were identified and quantified with a coding scheme grounded in the data itself. Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction were measured with a scale purposefully designed for this study. Unlike previous research, several inter-rater reliability measures were adopted and the time devoted to each one of the classroom activities was measured. Results showed that the percentage of adapted activities was high, with a variety of techniques displayed, although such variety did not imply a radical lack of adherence to the textbooks’ content. No statistically significant differences between the three teachers observed were detected concerning the percentage of the adapted activities, of their adaptation techniques and of Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction as resulting from their textbook implementation. Accordingly, the teachers’ profiles appeared to correspond to “advanced” textbook transmitters. The comparison of Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction between the content of the three textbooks yielded non-statistically significant differences too. This study contributes to the scholarly understanding of patterns of textbook use and it potentially provides valuable insights for the fields of Instructed Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education.
Keywords: English as a Foreign Language, Form-Focused Instruction, Meaning-Focused Instruction, Textbook Use, Textbook Content
Researchers have highlighted the imperative need to perform studies on textbook use, given the acknowledged importance of textbooks as the primary teaching tool in foreign language classrooms and the roles of teachers in mediating the effects of textbooks on students’ learning. Furthermore, past research considering Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction in textbook use is scant. Thus, the aim of this multiple case study is to provide a comprehensive account of patterns of textbook use in the previously non-researched context of Spanish classrooms, both regarding adaptation techniques and the presence of Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction arising from the application of such techniques and the retained original textbook activities. One English as a Foreign Language session in three different educational centers was observed (213 minutes in total). The adaptation techniques were identified and quantified with a coding scheme grounded in the data itself. Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction were measured with a scale purposefully designed for this study. Unlike previous research, several inter-rater reliability measures were adopted and the time devoted to each one of the classroom activities was measured. Results showed that the percentage of adapted activities was high, with a variety of techniques displayed, although such variety did not imply a radical lack of adherence to the textbooks’ content. No statistically significant differences between the three teachers observed were detected concerning the percentage of the adapted activities, of their adaptation techniques and of Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction as resulting from their textbook implementation. Accordingly, the teachers’ profiles appeared to correspond to “advanced” textbook transmitters. The comparison of Form-focused and Meaning-focused Instruction between the content of the three textbooks yielded non-statistically significant differences too. This study contributes to the scholarly understanding of patterns of textbook use and it potentially provides valuable insights for the fields of Instructed Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education.
Keywords: English as a Foreign Language, Form-Focused Instruction, Meaning-Focused Instruction, Textbook Use, Textbook Content
Criado, R. (2022). Activity typology and sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching textbooks. In I. Alonso & R. Criado (Eds.), Perspectives and good practices in English language teacher training (pp. 131–166). Síntesis. ISBN:... more
Criado, R. (2022). Activity typology and sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching textbooks. In I. Alonso & R. Criado (Eds.), Perspectives and good practices in English language teacher training (pp. 131–166). Síntesis. ISBN: 9788413571638; ISBN Digital: 9788413577265.
Vasylets, O., Criado, R., & Gris-Roca, J. (2023). Comparing individual vs. collaborative writing in Spanish EFL secondary education: Insights from CAF measures, propositional complexity, and communicative adequacy. In A. Garcés-Manzanera... more
Vasylets, O., Criado, R., & Gris-Roca, J. (2023). Comparing individual vs. collaborative writing in Spanish EFL secondary education: Insights from CAF measures, propositional complexity, and communicative adequacy. In A. Garcés-Manzanera & M. E. Carrillo García (Eds.), New approaches to the investigation of language teaching and literature (pp. 154–170). IGI Global. ISBN: 9781668460207 https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-6020-7.ch009
http://hdl.handle.net/10201/137504
The aim of this study was to compare the quality of L2 writing performance in collaborative and individual writing conditions. A group of L1 Spanish secondary-school learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL)–an under-researched population in L2 writing–were divided into individual (n = 26) and collaborative (n = 34) writing conditions. The 43 texts, written as response to a problem-solving task, were analysed in terms of accuracy, lexical and syntactic complexity, propositional complexity (idea units), fluency and communicative adequacy. In contrast with the previous findings from the literature, results refute the beneficial effects of collaborative writing on accuracy and do not confirm the similarities in syntactic complexity between both writing conditions, given the superiority of the collaborative one. These findings will be explained by drawing from the learning affordances provided by collaborative writing and certain methodological aspects. Future lines of classroom-based research and pedagogical implications will be indicated.
Keywords: Individual writing, Collaborative writing, Spanish EFL secondary education,
CAF measures, Propositional complexity, Communicative adequacy
http://hdl.handle.net/10201/137504
The aim of this study was to compare the quality of L2 writing performance in collaborative and individual writing conditions. A group of L1 Spanish secondary-school learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL)–an under-researched population in L2 writing–were divided into individual (n = 26) and collaborative (n = 34) writing conditions. The 43 texts, written as response to a problem-solving task, were analysed in terms of accuracy, lexical and syntactic complexity, propositional complexity (idea units), fluency and communicative adequacy. In contrast with the previous findings from the literature, results refute the beneficial effects of collaborative writing on accuracy and do not confirm the similarities in syntactic complexity between both writing conditions, given the superiority of the collaborative one. These findings will be explained by drawing from the learning affordances provided by collaborative writing and certain methodological aspects. Future lines of classroom-based research and pedagogical implications will be indicated.
Keywords: Individual writing, Collaborative writing, Spanish EFL secondary education,
CAF measures, Propositional complexity, Communicative adequacy
Garcés, A., Criado, R., & Manchón, R. M. (2023). Affordances and limitations when using Inputlog to study young learners’ pausing behaviour in L2 writing. In R. M. Manchón & J. Roca de Larios (Ed.), Research methods in the study of L2... more
Garcés, A., Criado, R., & Manchón, R. M. (2023). Affordances and limitations when using Inputlog to study young learners’ pausing behaviour in L2 writing. In R. M. Manchón & J. Roca de Larios (Ed.), Research methods in the study of L2 writing processes (pp. 224-246). John Benjamins. ISBN: 9789027214102 https://doi.org/10.1075/rmal.5.11gar
This chapter focuses on methodological considerations in a study in which keystroke-logging data was used for the analysis of young English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ pausing behavior while writing in their L2. We first present the rationale behind the study and subsequently discuss methodological considerations in the operationalization of the construct of pausing behavior, challenges and problems related to data analysis, and solutions adopted. In the final part, we suggest directions for further research.
Keywords: L2 digital writing, L2 writing processes, Pausing behaviour, Keystroke-logging data, Research methods, Young learners
This chapter focuses on methodological considerations in a study in which keystroke-logging data was used for the analysis of young English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ pausing behavior while writing in their L2. We first present the rationale behind the study and subsequently discuss methodological considerations in the operationalization of the construct of pausing behavior, challenges and problems related to data analysis, and solutions adopted. In the final part, we suggest directions for further research.
Keywords: L2 digital writing, L2 writing processes, Pausing behaviour, Keystroke-logging data, Research methods, Young learners
Manchón, R., Nicolás-Conesa, F., Cerezo, L. & Criado, R. (2020). L2 writers’ processing of written corrective feedback: Depth of processing via written languaging. In W. Suzuki & N. Storch (Eds.), Languaging in language learning and... more
Manchón, R., Nicolás-Conesa, F., Cerezo, L. & Criado, R. (2020). L2 writers’ processing of written corrective feedback: Depth of processing via written languaging. In W. Suzuki & N. Storch (Eds.), Languaging in language learning and teaching. A collection of empirical studies (pp. 241–265). John Benjamins.
In this study we investigated (i) whether levels of depth of processing (DoP) are mediated by writing conditions (individual vs. collaborative writing), and (ii) the relationship between DoP and accuracy measures in the texts produced before and after processing feedback. Participants (118 intermediate EFL learners) were invited to complete a picture-based problem-solving task in either individual or collaborative writing conditions, in both cases with and without the availability of feedback. Findings show that access to feedback (rather than writing conditions) was the key variable that mediated both DoP and improvements in global accuracy. We discuss these findings from various perspectives, including methodological considerations for future languaging research.
Keywords: L2 writing, Collaborative writing, Depth of processing, Error correction, Written languaging, Written corrective feedback
In this study we investigated (i) whether levels of depth of processing (DoP) are mediated by writing conditions (individual vs. collaborative writing), and (ii) the relationship between DoP and accuracy measures in the texts produced before and after processing feedback. Participants (118 intermediate EFL learners) were invited to complete a picture-based problem-solving task in either individual or collaborative writing conditions, in both cases with and without the availability of feedback. Findings show that access to feedback (rather than writing conditions) was the key variable that mediated both DoP and improvements in global accuracy. We discuss these findings from various perspectives, including methodological considerations for future languaging research.
Keywords: L2 writing, Collaborative writing, Depth of processing, Error correction, Written languaging, Written corrective feedback
This study was motivated by Truscott's (1996, 2004) scarcely empirically tested claims that written corrective feedback (WCF) processing hinders fluency in subsequent rewriting owing to learners' purposeful avoidance of making mistakes by... more
This study was motivated by Truscott's (1996, 2004) scarcely empirically tested claims that written corrective feedback (WCF) processing hinders fluency in subsequent rewriting owing to learners' purposeful avoidance of making mistakes by composing shorter texts at a higher speed. It examined the writing fluency of the texts produced by eighteen 10-11-year-old L2 English children in a digital environment. They were divided into a feedback (N = 10) and a self-correction group (N = 8). Both groups engaged in a three-stage task: writing, comparison of their texts with a model or self-editing as appropriate, and rewriting. Fluency was analyzed via five product/offline and five process/online measures. The texts and writing behaviors were recorded with Inputlog 8.0. The results partially support Truscott's claims. The feedback group improved their fluency in all the ten measures. However, the self-Raquel Criado, Aitor Garcés-Manzanera, Luke Plonsky 698 editing group showed higher fluency than the feedback group in seven of the ten measures, with the corresponding Hedge's effect sizes between groups ranging from small to large. The study enlightens our knowledge of young learners' writing fluency and supports adopting a multidimensional approach to understand the complex and multi-faceted nature of fluency as mediated by WCF processing.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
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The two-faceted nature of lexical frequency as the overarching factor in determining communicative usefulness and in contributing to vocabulary learning should be taken into account in language teaching textbooks. These constitute a basic... more
The two-faceted nature of lexical frequency as the overarching factor in determining communicative usefulness and in contributing to vocabulary learning should be taken into account in language teaching textbooks. These constitute a basic tool of the teachers’ repertoire in Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) contexts. However, the number of textbooks’ lexical content analyses is not abundant and most of them yield non-positive results. The aim of the present study is to analyse the lexical profile of three well-known English as a Foreign Language (EFL) textbooks which belong to the same series and which are targeted at adult learners. The analysis examines which words are presented and how frequently they are included to verify whether such textbooks comply with the aforementioned two-faceted nature of lexical frequency. For that purpose, the amount of the lemmas, types and tokens and the frequency levels of the types of each textbook were computed by means of the computer programme RANGE (Nation, Heatley & Coxhead, 2002). Afterwards, the number of the lemmas of the three textbooks was a) matched with the number of lemmas assumed by The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (2001, 2017) in accordance with each textbook’s level and b) compared with the vocabulary growth rates (students’ lexical learning capacity) as determined by the specialised literature. Results showed that each textbook’s distribution of words per range was not entirely adequate in relation to their targeted levels of proficiency. Likewise, the textbooks exceeded the number of lemmas to be learnt from the perspective of both the quantitative requirements of the CEFR and learning rates. These results point to authors’ pedagogical manipulation of the lexicon to comply with editorial space restrictions, which entails distorting the normal patterns of lexical distribution of texts.
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Foreign Language Teaching is targeted at the attainment of implicit language knowledge by means of form-focused and meaning-focused instruction (FFI and MFI). This study is aimed at devising and validating a scale with psychometric... more
Foreign Language Teaching is targeted at the attainment of implicit language knowledge by means of form-focused and meaning-focused instruction (FFI and MFI). This study is aimed at devising and validating a scale with psychometric techniques that measures the degree of FFI and MFI of textbook activities. Specifically, the objectives of this article are twofold. The first objective is to study the concurrent criterion validity of the application of the scale by 5 applied linguists and 5 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) secondary-school teachers on 15 randomly-selected authentic EFL textbooks. The external criterion is the holistic assessment of the FFI and MFI loads of these activities on a continuum from 0 to 10. The second objective is to study the inter-rater reliability scores of both types of assessments (holistic and scale-based). Results show very satisfactory concurrent criterion validity and inter-rater reliability. Future lines of research are suggested.
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This article presents a framework for the elaboration of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) grammar materials for adults based on the application to SLA of Skill Acquisition Theory (SAT). This theory is argued to compensate for the major... more
This article presents a framework for the elaboration of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) grammar materials for adults based on the application to SLA of Skill Acquisition Theory (SAT). This theory is argued to compensate for the major drawbacks of FLT settings in comparison with second language contexts (lack of classroom learning time and limited amount of in-classroom and out-of-the classroom exposure to the target language). SAT is rooted on the distinction of declarative, procedural and automatised knowledge. These are developed in three stages (declarative, procedural and automatic) along a gradual long-term process – DECPRO. Such a cognitive sequence stresses the causal role of declarative knowledge in the attainment of procedural knowledge, which is automatised afterwards and allows for fluent language processing and production. SAT as applied to FLT grammar favours the explicit teaching of declarative knowledge (grammar rules) prior to (semi)communicative language practice and it also influences two essential intertwined aspects in the praxis of language teaching: First, activity sequencing, which should comply with DECPRO; second, the nature of the activities suitable to foster the development of each one of such cognitive stages. Moreover, the pedagogical implementation of SAT allows for the revitalisation of the currently reviled grammatical/ structural syllabuses. Likewise, it highlights the need for instruction to avoid hindrances to learning provoked by an undesirable mismatch between cognitive phases and the pedagogical action aimed at their activation and development.
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ABSTRACT: Classroom practice has traditionally emphasized the value and efficacy of repetition as a means to consolidate learning. It is also well known that some methods (e.g. the Audiolingual method) have relied more exclusively on... more
ABSTRACT:
Classroom practice has traditionally emphasized the value and efficacy of repetition as a means to consolidate learning. It is also well known that some methods (e.g. the Audiolingual method) have relied more exclusively on this technique. Other methods (the Direct Method, the Communicative Approach) have given priority to language use or emphasized content. Thus, repetition practices have been left aside in the last decades, while ‘open’ and ‘free/non controlled activities’ have been encouraged instead. Teaching materials available have followed these trends. Research on knowledge acquisition processes may shed some light on the issue. Studies in the field of neurobiology, neurolinguistics and psycholinguistics have contributed relevant evidence to a more accurate understanding of the structure of the brain and the role of frequency and repetition to allow for incoming information into the short-term memory to pass to and consolidate in the long-term memory. This is a necessary step to reach proceduralization and automatization. As a conclusion, repetitive practice must be present in language teaching/learning. The true methodological issue regarding repetitive practice (as illustrated in the samples here analysed) should therefore be centred on the nature of repetitive activities and on how teachers and teaching materials should administer them.
KEYWORDS: Cognitive psychology, Neurolinguistics, SLA, Language teaching/learning, Practice, Repetition, Drills.
RESUMEN:
Tradicionalmente, la práctica en el aula ha enfatizado el valor y la eficacia de la repetición como un medio para consolidar el aprendizaje. Es igualmente conocido que algunos métodos (como por ejemplo, el Audiolingual) han utilizado casi de forma exclusiva esta técnica. Otros métodos (el Método Directo, el Método Comunicativo, etc.) han priorizado el uso de la lengua o el contenido. Así pues, las prácticas repetitivas han sido estigmatizadas durante las últimas décadas, mientras que, por otra parte, se han fomentado las actividades ‘abiertas’, ‘no controladas’ o de ‘producción libre’, una tendencia que han seguido los materiales pedagógicos. La investigación sobre los procesos de adquisición del conocimiento ha aportado nuevos datos de interés para el tema. La neurolingüística y la psicolingüística han aportado datos relevantes para una comprensión más exacta de la estructura cerebral y del papel que desempeñan la frecuencia y la repetición en el proceso de consolidación de conocimientos, mediante la transferencia de nueva información desde la memoria a corto plazo a la memoria a largo plazo. Tal etapa es necesaria para alcanzar la procedimentalización y la automatización. Como conclusión, la práctica repetitiva debe estar presente en la enseñanza y aprendizaje de idiomas. Por tanto, la verdadera cuestión metodológica en cuanto a la práctica repetitiva (tal y como se muestra en los ejemplos que se analizan en este trabajo) debería centrarse en la naturaleza de las actividades repetitivas y en el modo en que estas deben ser administradas en el aula e integrarse en los materiales docentes.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Psicología Cognitiva, Neurolingüística, Adquisición de segundas lenguas, Enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, práctica, repetición, ejercicios recursivos.
Classroom practice has traditionally emphasized the value and efficacy of repetition as a means to consolidate learning. It is also well known that some methods (e.g. the Audiolingual method) have relied more exclusively on this technique. Other methods (the Direct Method, the Communicative Approach) have given priority to language use or emphasized content. Thus, repetition practices have been left aside in the last decades, while ‘open’ and ‘free/non controlled activities’ have been encouraged instead. Teaching materials available have followed these trends. Research on knowledge acquisition processes may shed some light on the issue. Studies in the field of neurobiology, neurolinguistics and psycholinguistics have contributed relevant evidence to a more accurate understanding of the structure of the brain and the role of frequency and repetition to allow for incoming information into the short-term memory to pass to and consolidate in the long-term memory. This is a necessary step to reach proceduralization and automatization. As a conclusion, repetitive practice must be present in language teaching/learning. The true methodological issue regarding repetitive practice (as illustrated in the samples here analysed) should therefore be centred on the nature of repetitive activities and on how teachers and teaching materials should administer them.
KEYWORDS: Cognitive psychology, Neurolinguistics, SLA, Language teaching/learning, Practice, Repetition, Drills.
RESUMEN:
Tradicionalmente, la práctica en el aula ha enfatizado el valor y la eficacia de la repetición como un medio para consolidar el aprendizaje. Es igualmente conocido que algunos métodos (como por ejemplo, el Audiolingual) han utilizado casi de forma exclusiva esta técnica. Otros métodos (el Método Directo, el Método Comunicativo, etc.) han priorizado el uso de la lengua o el contenido. Así pues, las prácticas repetitivas han sido estigmatizadas durante las últimas décadas, mientras que, por otra parte, se han fomentado las actividades ‘abiertas’, ‘no controladas’ o de ‘producción libre’, una tendencia que han seguido los materiales pedagógicos. La investigación sobre los procesos de adquisición del conocimiento ha aportado nuevos datos de interés para el tema. La neurolingüística y la psicolingüística han aportado datos relevantes para una comprensión más exacta de la estructura cerebral y del papel que desempeñan la frecuencia y la repetición en el proceso de consolidación de conocimientos, mediante la transferencia de nueva información desde la memoria a corto plazo a la memoria a largo plazo. Tal etapa es necesaria para alcanzar la procedimentalización y la automatización. Como conclusión, la práctica repetitiva debe estar presente en la enseñanza y aprendizaje de idiomas. Por tanto, la verdadera cuestión metodológica en cuanto a la práctica repetitiva (tal y como se muestra en los ejemplos que se analizan en este trabajo) debería centrarse en la naturaleza de las actividades repetitivas y en el modo en que estas deben ser administradas en el aula e integrarse en los materiales docentes.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Psicología Cognitiva, Neurolingüística, Adquisición de segundas lenguas, Enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, práctica, repetición, ejercicios recursivos.
ABSTRACT: It is generally accepted that there is a close relationship between explicit and declarative knowledge, and between implicit and procedural knowledge. Explicit is also associated with learning in which consciousness is engaged,... more
ABSTRACT:
It is generally accepted that there is a close relationship between explicit and declarative knowledge, and between implicit and procedural knowledge. Explicit is also associated with learning in which consciousness is engaged, while implicit is associated with acquisition, which takes place without a conscious control of the process. Research in explicit and implicit knowledge should have a counterpart in real language teaching and in the classroom, if research is to be the trigger of innovation and open new frontiers in ELT. The promotion of explicit or implicit knowledge (learning or acquisition of language) is necessarily present in the teaching materials and/or in the classroom action. As regards teaching materials, the minimal teaching unit par excellence, the exercise or activity, should reveal the nature of the type of knowledge aimed at. In this study a corpus with the activities of an ELT textbook was compiled. This was then analysed and systematised from the perspective of its explicit and implicit potential. The results show whether the textbook complies or not (and how much) with the requirements leading to explicit or implicit learning.
KEYWORDS: explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge, explicit learning, implicit learning, acquisition, explicit teaching, implicit teaching, language teaching materials
RESUMEN:
Existe un acuerdo generalizado sobre la estrecha relación existente entre conocimiento declarativo y explícito, y entre conocimiento procedimental e implícito. Explícito se asocia a aprendizaje, en el que se activa la consciencia, mientras que implícito se vincula a adquisición, cuyo proceso tiene lugar sin que intervenga la consciencia. Si partimos de la premisa de que la investigación anteriormente mencionada debe ser el motor de la innovación y abrir nuevas fronteras en la enseñanza de idiomas, es de esperar que los estudios resultantes se vean reflejados en el aula real y la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras. El desarrollo del conocimiento explícito e implícito (aprendizaje o adquisición) se refleja ineludiblemente en los materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas y/o en la acción docente en el aula. Respecto a los primeros, la unidad mínima por excelencia es la actividad, la cual debe revelar la naturaleza del tipo de conocimiento que se pretende fomentar. En el presente trabajo hemos compilado un corpus de las actividades de un libro para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera. Posteriormente se analizaron y sistematizaron dichas actividades desde la perspectiva de su potencial para promover la enseñanza/aprendizaje de lo explícito o implícito. Los resultados muestran hasta qué punto el manual se ajusta a los requisitos necesarios para posibilitar el aprendizaje explícito e implícito.
PALABRAS CLAVE: conocimiento explícito e implícito, aprendizaje explícito, aprendizaje implícito, adquisición, enseñanza explícita e implícita, materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjera
It is generally accepted that there is a close relationship between explicit and declarative knowledge, and between implicit and procedural knowledge. Explicit is also associated with learning in which consciousness is engaged, while implicit is associated with acquisition, which takes place without a conscious control of the process. Research in explicit and implicit knowledge should have a counterpart in real language teaching and in the classroom, if research is to be the trigger of innovation and open new frontiers in ELT. The promotion of explicit or implicit knowledge (learning or acquisition of language) is necessarily present in the teaching materials and/or in the classroom action. As regards teaching materials, the minimal teaching unit par excellence, the exercise or activity, should reveal the nature of the type of knowledge aimed at. In this study a corpus with the activities of an ELT textbook was compiled. This was then analysed and systematised from the perspective of its explicit and implicit potential. The results show whether the textbook complies or not (and how much) with the requirements leading to explicit or implicit learning.
KEYWORDS: explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge, explicit learning, implicit learning, acquisition, explicit teaching, implicit teaching, language teaching materials
RESUMEN:
Existe un acuerdo generalizado sobre la estrecha relación existente entre conocimiento declarativo y explícito, y entre conocimiento procedimental e implícito. Explícito se asocia a aprendizaje, en el que se activa la consciencia, mientras que implícito se vincula a adquisición, cuyo proceso tiene lugar sin que intervenga la consciencia. Si partimos de la premisa de que la investigación anteriormente mencionada debe ser el motor de la innovación y abrir nuevas fronteras en la enseñanza de idiomas, es de esperar que los estudios resultantes se vean reflejados en el aula real y la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras. El desarrollo del conocimiento explícito e implícito (aprendizaje o adquisición) se refleja ineludiblemente en los materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas y/o en la acción docente en el aula. Respecto a los primeros, la unidad mínima por excelencia es la actividad, la cual debe revelar la naturaleza del tipo de conocimiento que se pretende fomentar. En el presente trabajo hemos compilado un corpus de las actividades de un libro para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera. Posteriormente se analizaron y sistematizaron dichas actividades desde la perspectiva de su potencial para promover la enseñanza/aprendizaje de lo explícito o implícito. Los resultados muestran hasta qué punto el manual se ajusta a los requisitos necesarios para posibilitar el aprendizaje explícito e implícito.
PALABRAS CLAVE: conocimiento explícito e implícito, aprendizaje explícito, aprendizaje implícito, adquisición, enseñanza explícita e implícita, materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjera
ABSTRACT: The concepts of explicit and implicit (knowledge) are at the core of SLA studies. We take explicit as conscious and declarative (knowledge); implicit as unconscious, automatic and procedural (knowledge) (DeKeyser, 2003; R.... more
ABSTRACT:
The concepts of explicit and implicit (knowledge) are at the core of SLA studies. We take explicit as conscious and declarative (knowledge); implicit as unconscious, automatic and procedural (knowledge) (DeKeyser, 2003; R. Ellis, 2005a, 2005b, 2009; Hulstjin, 2005; Robinson, 1996; Schmidt, 1990, 1994). The importance of those concepts and components, we believe, must also be acknowledged in language teaching, and consequently in language teaching materials. However, explicitness and implicitness are rather complex constructs; such complexity allows for multiple nuances and perspectives in their analysis, and this fact poses a real challenge for their identification in the learning and teaching process and materials. We focus here on ELT materials and aim at the building of a reliable construct which may help in the identification of their potential for promoting implicit and explicit components. We first determined the features to identify the construct for implicitness and explicitness; next, we validated it and then we applied it to the analysis of the activities included in three sample units of three textbooks. The results were computed along a continuum ranging from 0 to 10 in each activity. The systematization and computation of results will hopefully offer a reliable figure regarding the identification of the degree of explicitness and/or implicitness in the materials analysed.
KEYWORDS:
Explicit/implicit knowledge, declarative/procedural knowledge, SLA, ELT materials.
RESUMEN
Los conceptos de (conocimiento) explícito e implícito constituyen uno de los puntos centrales en los estudios sobre la adquisición de lenguas extranjeras. Por explícito se entiende (conocimiento) consciente o declarativo; por implícito, (conocimiento) no consciente, automático y procedimentalizado (DeKeyser, 2003; R. Ellis, 2005a, 2005b, 2009; Hulstjin, 2005; Robinson, 1996; Schmidt, 1990, 1994). La importancia de ambos conceptos debe trasladarse también al campo de la enseñanza de idiomas y por lo tanto a los materiales docentes. Sin embargo, lo explícito e implícito son constructos complejos, y esta complejidad permite muchos matices y perspectivas en su análisis. Este hecho implica que su identificación en los materiales docentes y discentes constituya un verdadero reto. Este trabajo se centra en materiales para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera. Se pretende elaborar un constructo fiable que pueda ayudar a identificar el componente explícito e implícito que dichos materiales promueven. A tal fin, se determinaron primero los rasgos definitorios del constructo implícito y explícito, y se procedió a su validación. Posteriormente se analizaron con él las actividades de tres unidades completas en tres manuales diferentes de inglés como lengua extranjera. Los resultados se computan dentro de un continuo entre 0 y 10 para cada actividad. La sistematización y cómputo de los resultados confiamos que nos ofrezcan un índice fiable respecto al potencial de explicitud e implicitud que conllevan los materiales analizados.
PALABRAS CLAVE:
Conocimiento explícito/implícito, conocimiento declarativo / procedimental, adquisición de segundas lenguas, materiales para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera.
The concepts of explicit and implicit (knowledge) are at the core of SLA studies. We take explicit as conscious and declarative (knowledge); implicit as unconscious, automatic and procedural (knowledge) (DeKeyser, 2003; R. Ellis, 2005a, 2005b, 2009; Hulstjin, 2005; Robinson, 1996; Schmidt, 1990, 1994). The importance of those concepts and components, we believe, must also be acknowledged in language teaching, and consequently in language teaching materials. However, explicitness and implicitness are rather complex constructs; such complexity allows for multiple nuances and perspectives in their analysis, and this fact poses a real challenge for their identification in the learning and teaching process and materials. We focus here on ELT materials and aim at the building of a reliable construct which may help in the identification of their potential for promoting implicit and explicit components. We first determined the features to identify the construct for implicitness and explicitness; next, we validated it and then we applied it to the analysis of the activities included in three sample units of three textbooks. The results were computed along a continuum ranging from 0 to 10 in each activity. The systematization and computation of results will hopefully offer a reliable figure regarding the identification of the degree of explicitness and/or implicitness in the materials analysed.
KEYWORDS:
Explicit/implicit knowledge, declarative/procedural knowledge, SLA, ELT materials.
RESUMEN
Los conceptos de (conocimiento) explícito e implícito constituyen uno de los puntos centrales en los estudios sobre la adquisición de lenguas extranjeras. Por explícito se entiende (conocimiento) consciente o declarativo; por implícito, (conocimiento) no consciente, automático y procedimentalizado (DeKeyser, 2003; R. Ellis, 2005a, 2005b, 2009; Hulstjin, 2005; Robinson, 1996; Schmidt, 1990, 1994). La importancia de ambos conceptos debe trasladarse también al campo de la enseñanza de idiomas y por lo tanto a los materiales docentes. Sin embargo, lo explícito e implícito son constructos complejos, y esta complejidad permite muchos matices y perspectivas en su análisis. Este hecho implica que su identificación en los materiales docentes y discentes constituya un verdadero reto. Este trabajo se centra en materiales para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera. Se pretende elaborar un constructo fiable que pueda ayudar a identificar el componente explícito e implícito que dichos materiales promueven. A tal fin, se determinaron primero los rasgos definitorios del constructo implícito y explícito, y se procedió a su validación. Posteriormente se analizaron con él las actividades de tres unidades completas en tres manuales diferentes de inglés como lengua extranjera. Los resultados se computan dentro de un continuo entre 0 y 10 para cada actividad. La sistematización y cómputo de los resultados confiamos que nos ofrezcan un índice fiable respecto al potencial de explicitud e implicitud que conllevan los materiales analizados.
PALABRAS CLAVE:
Conocimiento explícito/implícito, conocimiento declarativo / procedimental, adquisición de segundas lenguas, materiales para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera.
Research Interests:
ABSTRACT: The concept of method has been substantially conditioned by the sources and principles on which the different methods have emerged throughout history. Accordingly, methods have been characterised by the virtues and deficiencies... more
ABSTRACT:
The concept of method has been substantially conditioned by the sources and principles on which the different methods have emerged throughout history. Accordingly, methods have been characterised by the virtues and deficiencies of such sources and principles. Due to easily understandable reasons, methods have not hitherto had access to the essential cognitive component in learning: the biological support on which it depends, that is to say, the brain, its structure, its functioning, and both the neurolinguistic and psycholinguistic elements and processes which trigger learning. It is argued that these factors should not only be studied and considered, but that they should be urgently integrated into the construct of method and its practical implications.
KEYWORDS: language teaching method, cognitive processes, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, repetitive practice.
RESUMEN:
El concepto de método ha estado condicionado sustancialmente por las fuentes y recursos sobre los cuales se han basado los métodos concretos que han ido surgiendo a lo largo de la historia. En tal sentido, los métodos se han caracterizado por los aspectos positivos y negativos, virtudes y carencias propias de dichas fuentes o recursos. Por razones fácilmente comprensibles, los métodos no han tenido acceso hasta ahora a un componente cognitivo esencial en el aprendizaje: el soporte biológico del cual depende, es decir, el cerebro, su estructura, su funcionamiento, los elementos y procesos neurolingüísticos y psicolingüísticos que en él propician el aprendizaje. En este artículo argüimos que dicho componente cognitivo no sólo debe ser estudiado y tenido en cuenta, sino que debe incorporarse con urgencia al constructo metodológico y a las implicaciones prácticas que este conlleva.
PALABRAS CLAVE: método para la enseñanza de lenguas, procesos cognitivos, psicolingüística, neurolingüística, conocimiento declarativo, conocimiento procedimental, prácticas repetitivas.
The concept of method has been substantially conditioned by the sources and principles on which the different methods have emerged throughout history. Accordingly, methods have been characterised by the virtues and deficiencies of such sources and principles. Due to easily understandable reasons, methods have not hitherto had access to the essential cognitive component in learning: the biological support on which it depends, that is to say, the brain, its structure, its functioning, and both the neurolinguistic and psycholinguistic elements and processes which trigger learning. It is argued that these factors should not only be studied and considered, but that they should be urgently integrated into the construct of method and its practical implications.
KEYWORDS: language teaching method, cognitive processes, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, repetitive practice.
RESUMEN:
El concepto de método ha estado condicionado sustancialmente por las fuentes y recursos sobre los cuales se han basado los métodos concretos que han ido surgiendo a lo largo de la historia. En tal sentido, los métodos se han caracterizado por los aspectos positivos y negativos, virtudes y carencias propias de dichas fuentes o recursos. Por razones fácilmente comprensibles, los métodos no han tenido acceso hasta ahora a un componente cognitivo esencial en el aprendizaje: el soporte biológico del cual depende, es decir, el cerebro, su estructura, su funcionamiento, los elementos y procesos neurolingüísticos y psicolingüísticos que en él propician el aprendizaje. En este artículo argüimos que dicho componente cognitivo no sólo debe ser estudiado y tenido en cuenta, sino que debe incorporarse con urgencia al constructo metodológico y a las implicaciones prácticas que este conlleva.
PALABRAS CLAVE: método para la enseñanza de lenguas, procesos cognitivos, psicolingüística, neurolingüística, conocimiento declarativo, conocimiento procedimental, prácticas repetitivas.
Culture and language are two intertwined constructs essential to understand the interpretation of reality by different communities. Apprehending the foreign language culture is thus vital to attain genuine and fully communicative... more
Culture and language are two intertwined constructs essential to understand the interpretation of reality by different communities. Apprehending the foreign language culture is thus vital to attain genuine and fully communicative competence in the L2. This article specifically focuses on the teaching of scripts in ELT. Scripts (Shank and Abelson, 1977) are defined as proceduralised sequences of events of a temporal, cause-and-effect nature which underlie daily stereotyped situations. In this work, scripts are also regarded as cognitive sequences of events for culturally idiosyncratic situations pertaining to a certain linguistic population. The objective of this article is to propose the integration of culture and language teaching in ELT by means of the pedagogical adaptation of scripts for cultural situations made up of an ordered sequence of events. This will be accomplished through the “Communicative Processes-based model of activity sequencing” (CPM). The present proposal attempts at compensating the shortage of traditional culture teaching, which has been almost exclusively restricted to lexis or Elementary Meaning Units (Lado, 1957). The CPM adaptation will be illustrated with a complete ELT lesson created by the author for the script of the Cheese-Rolling festival in the English region of The Cotswolds. This lesson will be critically analysed from cultural, pedagogical and cognitive perspectives.
Research Interests: Integration and Scripts
ABSTRACT: Activity sequencing patterns in teaching materials have traditionally been absent in academic discussions and have received no attention by researchers and language teaching practitioners. More recent studies on cognitive... more
ABSTRACT:
Activity sequencing patterns in teaching materials have traditionally been absent in academic discussions and have received no attention by researchers and language teaching practitioners. More recent studies on cognitive knowledge acquisition suggest, however, that pedagogical sequencing is relevant and may severely affect efficiency in the learning of foreign languages. If knowledge acquisition is governed by specific patterns, the learning -and hence teaching- of foreign languages cannot but comply with those patterns.
In this article we will firstly begin with two well consolidated theories on knowledge acquisition -rationalism and empiricism-, and associate them to the general cognitive models most widely recognised nowadays, particularly Anderson’s ACT (1983, 2005). Secondly, we will investigate the types of sequences detected in three samples of teaching materials.
The analysis will be carried out comparing the sequencing of activities in sample lessons against the sequencing patterns governing knowledge acquisition. Such a comparison will faithfully indicate whether teaching materials fit or not the general model of knowledge acquisition.
KEYWORDS: teaching materials, foreign language teaching, SLA, activity sequencing patterns, patterns of knowledge acquisition, cognitive psychology, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge.
RESUMEN:
Tradicionalmente, los patrones de secuenciación de actividades en los materiales de enseñanza de lenguas no han formado parte de los debates académicos; asimismo, apenas si han recibido atención por parte de investigadores y docentes. Estudios cognitivos recientes sobre la adquisición de conocimiento sugieren, sin embargo, que la secuenciación pedagógica es relevante y puede afectar seriamente la eficiencia del aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras. Si la adquisición de conocimiento está condicionada por patrones específicos, entonces el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras -y por tanto, su enseñanza- deberá necesariamente ajustarse a dichos patrones.
En este artículo partiremos, en primer lugar, de dos teorías consolidadas sobre la adquisición de conocimiento –racionalismo y empiricismo- y las asociaremos a los modelos cognitivos generales más asentados en la actualidad. Nos centraremos particularmente en el modelo ACT de Anderson (1983, 2005). En segundo lugar, investigaremos los tipos de secuencias detectadas en tres muestras de materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras.
El análisis se llevará a cabo mediante la comparación entre la secuencia de actividades en unidades de los manuales tomadas como muestra y los patrones de secuenciación que condicionan la adquisición de conocimiento. Dicha comparación indicará si los materiales de enseñanza de lenguas se ajustan o no al modelo general de adquisición de conocimiento.
PALABRAS CLAVE: materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas, enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, ASL, patrones de secuenciación de actividades, patrones de adquisición de conocimiento, psicología cognitiva, conocimiento declarativo, conocimiento procedimental.
Activity sequencing patterns in teaching materials have traditionally been absent in academic discussions and have received no attention by researchers and language teaching practitioners. More recent studies on cognitive knowledge acquisition suggest, however, that pedagogical sequencing is relevant and may severely affect efficiency in the learning of foreign languages. If knowledge acquisition is governed by specific patterns, the learning -and hence teaching- of foreign languages cannot but comply with those patterns.
In this article we will firstly begin with two well consolidated theories on knowledge acquisition -rationalism and empiricism-, and associate them to the general cognitive models most widely recognised nowadays, particularly Anderson’s ACT (1983, 2005). Secondly, we will investigate the types of sequences detected in three samples of teaching materials.
The analysis will be carried out comparing the sequencing of activities in sample lessons against the sequencing patterns governing knowledge acquisition. Such a comparison will faithfully indicate whether teaching materials fit or not the general model of knowledge acquisition.
KEYWORDS: teaching materials, foreign language teaching, SLA, activity sequencing patterns, patterns of knowledge acquisition, cognitive psychology, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge.
RESUMEN:
Tradicionalmente, los patrones de secuenciación de actividades en los materiales de enseñanza de lenguas no han formado parte de los debates académicos; asimismo, apenas si han recibido atención por parte de investigadores y docentes. Estudios cognitivos recientes sobre la adquisición de conocimiento sugieren, sin embargo, que la secuenciación pedagógica es relevante y puede afectar seriamente la eficiencia del aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras. Si la adquisición de conocimiento está condicionada por patrones específicos, entonces el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras -y por tanto, su enseñanza- deberá necesariamente ajustarse a dichos patrones.
En este artículo partiremos, en primer lugar, de dos teorías consolidadas sobre la adquisición de conocimiento –racionalismo y empiricismo- y las asociaremos a los modelos cognitivos generales más asentados en la actualidad. Nos centraremos particularmente en el modelo ACT de Anderson (1983, 2005). En segundo lugar, investigaremos los tipos de secuencias detectadas en tres muestras de materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras.
El análisis se llevará a cabo mediante la comparación entre la secuencia de actividades en unidades de los manuales tomadas como muestra y los patrones de secuenciación que condicionan la adquisición de conocimiento. Dicha comparación indicará si los materiales de enseñanza de lenguas se ajustan o no al modelo general de adquisición de conocimiento.
PALABRAS CLAVE: materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas, enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, ASL, patrones de secuenciación de actividades, patrones de adquisición de conocimiento, psicología cognitiva, conocimiento declarativo, conocimiento procedimental.
Research Interests:
ABSTRACT: With the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching Method, the traditional ‘Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing’ (P-P-P) from Structural Methods became the target of severe criticisms. The P-P-P... more
ABSTRACT:
With the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching Method, the traditional ‘Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing’ (P-P-P) from Structural Methods became the target of severe criticisms. The P-P-P should not be categorically rejected, since it actually conforms to one of the most influential models of skill acquisition in contemporary cognitive psychology: ACT-R (Anderson et al. 2004). Nevertheless, it is necessary to acknowledge the need for an activity sequencing model which respects cognitive learning principles and is explicitly inspired by real communicative processes. In this way, students’ language learning experience can be linked to the world outside the classroom. The ‘Communicative Processes-based model of activity sequencing’ (CPM) is described as a cognitively and pedagogically sound alternative to the P-P-P through the adaptation of a lesson from a well-known 21st century ELT textbook.
KEYWORDS: Activity sequencing, P-P-P, SLA, ELT materials, cognitive learning schemes.
RESUMEN:
Con la llegada del Método Comunicativo, el tradicional patrón de secuenciación de actividades ‘Presentación-Práctica-Producción’ (P-P-P) vigente en los Métodos Estructurales recibió severas críticas. No obstante, el P-P-P no debería ser categóricamente rechazado, pues de hecho se ajusta a uno de los modelos de adquisición de destrezas más influyentes en la psicología cognitiva actual: el ACT-R (Anderson et al. 2004). Ahora bien, es necesario reconocer la necesidad de la existencia de un modelo de secuenciación de actividades que respete los principios cognitivos de adquisición de conocimiento y que esté explícitamente inspirado en procesos comunicativos reales, a fin de que el alumnado pueda relacionar su experiencia de aprendizaje con el mundo exterior al aula. Así pues, mediante la adaptación de una unidad en un conocido manual del siglo XXI para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera, el ‘modelo de secuenciación de actividades basado en procesos comunicativos’ (CPM) se describirá como una alternativa cognitiva y pedagógicamente sólida al P-P-P.
PALABRAS CLAVE: secuenciación de actividades, P-P-P, ASL, materiales para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera, esquemas cognitivos de aprendizaje.
With the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching Method, the traditional ‘Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing’ (P-P-P) from Structural Methods became the target of severe criticisms. The P-P-P should not be categorically rejected, since it actually conforms to one of the most influential models of skill acquisition in contemporary cognitive psychology: ACT-R (Anderson et al. 2004). Nevertheless, it is necessary to acknowledge the need for an activity sequencing model which respects cognitive learning principles and is explicitly inspired by real communicative processes. In this way, students’ language learning experience can be linked to the world outside the classroom. The ‘Communicative Processes-based model of activity sequencing’ (CPM) is described as a cognitively and pedagogically sound alternative to the P-P-P through the adaptation of a lesson from a well-known 21st century ELT textbook.
KEYWORDS: Activity sequencing, P-P-P, SLA, ELT materials, cognitive learning schemes.
RESUMEN:
Con la llegada del Método Comunicativo, el tradicional patrón de secuenciación de actividades ‘Presentación-Práctica-Producción’ (P-P-P) vigente en los Métodos Estructurales recibió severas críticas. No obstante, el P-P-P no debería ser categóricamente rechazado, pues de hecho se ajusta a uno de los modelos de adquisición de destrezas más influyentes en la psicología cognitiva actual: el ACT-R (Anderson et al. 2004). Ahora bien, es necesario reconocer la necesidad de la existencia de un modelo de secuenciación de actividades que respete los principios cognitivos de adquisición de conocimiento y que esté explícitamente inspirado en procesos comunicativos reales, a fin de que el alumnado pueda relacionar su experiencia de aprendizaje con el mundo exterior al aula. Así pues, mediante la adaptación de una unidad en un conocido manual del siglo XXI para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera, el ‘modelo de secuenciación de actividades basado en procesos comunicativos’ (CPM) se describirá como una alternativa cognitiva y pedagógicamente sólida al P-P-P.
PALABRAS CLAVE: secuenciación de actividades, P-P-P, ASL, materiales para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera, esquemas cognitivos de aprendizaje.
ABSTRACT: The goal of this paper is to verify up to what point ELT textbooks used in Spanish educational settings comply with the official regulations prescribed, which fully advocate the Communicative Language Teaching Method (CLT). For... more
ABSTRACT:
The goal of this paper is to verify up to what point ELT textbooks used in Spanish educational settings comply with the official regulations prescribed, which fully advocate the Communicative Language Teaching Method (CLT). For that purpose, seven representative coursebooks of different educational levels and modalities in Spain – secondary, upper secondary, teenager and adult textbooks – were selected to be analysed. A full unit randomly selected from each coursebook was examined through the parameters of the communicative potential of the activities – measured on a scale from 0 to 10 – and the communicative nature of the methodological strategies implemented – measured on a dichotomous scale (yes/no). Global results per educational levels point to the prevailing communicative nature of all the materials, which was shown to be above 50%. The remaining non-communicative block was covered by activities focused on the formal features of language (grammar and vocabulary). This resulting degree of dissociation between official regulations and what is really found in teaching materials may be positive, since the learning of languages is complex and results from the intervention of multiple factors and learning styles, as is evidenced by the professional experience of teachers from different backgrounds and beliefs.
KEYWORDS: Communicative Language Teaching Method, ELT Coursebooks, Foreign Language Syllabus, Spanish regulations on ELT
RESUMEN:
El objetivo de este estudio es comprobar hasta qué punto los manuales de ELT usados en España, en varios niveles educativos, se ajustan a lo oficialmente prescrito, que es el método comunicativo. A tal fin, han sido seleccionados siete libros de texto representativos de varios niveles educativos en España (ESO, Bachillerato, jóvenes y adultos). Se ha analizado una unidad elegida al azar de cada uno de los libros seleccionados, tomando como base dos parámetros: el potencial comunicativo de las actividades (dentro de una escala de 0 a 10) y la naturaleza comunicativa de las estrategias metodológicas aplicadas en cada actividad (sobre la opción dicotómica de Sí/No). Los resultados generales por nivel educativo muestran el carácter comunicativo básico de los materiales usados, por encima del 50%. El resto de actividades, de carácter no comunicativo, se centran en aspectos formales de la lengua (gramática y vocabulario). El grado de ‘discrepancia’ entre las reglamentaciones oficiales y lo que ofrecen realmente los manuales analizados no tiene necesariamente que ser rechazable, pues el aprendizaje de una lengua es complejo y en él inciden multitud de factores y estilos de aprendizaje, tal y como demuestra la experiencia de profesores pertenecientes a distintos entornos profesionales.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Método comunicativo, Manuales para la enseñanza del inglés, Sílabo para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, Reglamentación sobre la enseñanza del inglés en España
The goal of this paper is to verify up to what point ELT textbooks used in Spanish educational settings comply with the official regulations prescribed, which fully advocate the Communicative Language Teaching Method (CLT). For that purpose, seven representative coursebooks of different educational levels and modalities in Spain – secondary, upper secondary, teenager and adult textbooks – were selected to be analysed. A full unit randomly selected from each coursebook was examined through the parameters of the communicative potential of the activities – measured on a scale from 0 to 10 – and the communicative nature of the methodological strategies implemented – measured on a dichotomous scale (yes/no). Global results per educational levels point to the prevailing communicative nature of all the materials, which was shown to be above 50%. The remaining non-communicative block was covered by activities focused on the formal features of language (grammar and vocabulary). This resulting degree of dissociation between official regulations and what is really found in teaching materials may be positive, since the learning of languages is complex and results from the intervention of multiple factors and learning styles, as is evidenced by the professional experience of teachers from different backgrounds and beliefs.
KEYWORDS: Communicative Language Teaching Method, ELT Coursebooks, Foreign Language Syllabus, Spanish regulations on ELT
RESUMEN:
El objetivo de este estudio es comprobar hasta qué punto los manuales de ELT usados en España, en varios niveles educativos, se ajustan a lo oficialmente prescrito, que es el método comunicativo. A tal fin, han sido seleccionados siete libros de texto representativos de varios niveles educativos en España (ESO, Bachillerato, jóvenes y adultos). Se ha analizado una unidad elegida al azar de cada uno de los libros seleccionados, tomando como base dos parámetros: el potencial comunicativo de las actividades (dentro de una escala de 0 a 10) y la naturaleza comunicativa de las estrategias metodológicas aplicadas en cada actividad (sobre la opción dicotómica de Sí/No). Los resultados generales por nivel educativo muestran el carácter comunicativo básico de los materiales usados, por encima del 50%. El resto de actividades, de carácter no comunicativo, se centran en aspectos formales de la lengua (gramática y vocabulario). El grado de ‘discrepancia’ entre las reglamentaciones oficiales y lo que ofrecen realmente los manuales analizados no tiene necesariamente que ser rechazable, pues el aprendizaje de una lengua es complejo y en él inciden multitud de factores y estilos de aprendizaje, tal y como demuestra la experiencia de profesores pertenecientes a distintos entornos profesionales.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Método comunicativo, Manuales para la enseñanza del inglés, Sílabo para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, Reglamentación sobre la enseñanza del inglés en España
Research Interests:
ABSTRACT: Vocabulary teaching and learning is one the most important components in textbooks. Vocabulary knowledge is also frequently associated to language fluency. It is therefore important to investigate how textbooks present... more
ABSTRACT:
Vocabulary teaching and learning is one the most important components in textbooks. Vocabulary knowledge is also frequently associated to language fluency. It is therefore important to investigate how textbooks present vocabulary, and how they comply with the conditions necessary for vocabulary learning. We will take into consideration three perspectives here: the conditions derived from cognitive processes of knowledge acquisition, the role of frequency in language and vocabulary learning and the distribution of new words throughout textbooks. The analysis of a specific EFL textbook and the comparison of the results against the rationale supporting the three perspectives mentioned above will reveal whether the textbook is suitable for efficiently reaching the goals regarding vocabulary teaching/learning.
PALABRAS CLAVE: vocabulary learning, SLA, corpus linguistics, frequency, repetitive practice
Vocabulary teaching and learning is one the most important components in textbooks. Vocabulary knowledge is also frequently associated to language fluency. It is therefore important to investigate how textbooks present vocabulary, and how they comply with the conditions necessary for vocabulary learning. We will take into consideration three perspectives here: the conditions derived from cognitive processes of knowledge acquisition, the role of frequency in language and vocabulary learning and the distribution of new words throughout textbooks. The analysis of a specific EFL textbook and the comparison of the results against the rationale supporting the three perspectives mentioned above will reveal whether the textbook is suitable for efficiently reaching the goals regarding vocabulary teaching/learning.
PALABRAS CLAVE: vocabulary learning, SLA, corpus linguistics, frequency, repetitive practice
ABSTRACT This paper will focus on the two kinds of knowledge humans may attain (specifically, linguistic knowledge), the cognitive processes as described in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics leading to knowledge attainment and... more
ABSTRACT
This paper will focus on the two kinds of knowledge humans may attain (specifically, linguistic knowledge), the cognitive processes as described in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics leading to knowledge attainment and their correspondence to the PPP (Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing). Even though methods in general and specific pedagogical actions imply the development of a specific type of knowledge (declarative or procedural), and a specific activity sequencing in teaching materials and procedures, the application of cognitive studies to language teaching has not been granted much relevance throughout the history of foreign pedagogy.
The analysis of a case-study is undertaken in which a sample lesson from a well-known contemporary textbook is examined with the following aims in mind: (i) to ascertain up to what point its activities favour the attainment of declarative or procedural knowledge, and (ii) to detect whether the activity sequencing agrees or not with the PPP and thus with the DEC->PRO cognitive sequencing. The analysis is performed on the activities of the units, since they constitute the operative pedagogical units both in textbooks and in the classroom.
Keywords: language teaching materials, PPP, activity sequencing, cognitive sequencing, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge
RESUMEN
El presente trabajo se centra en los dos tipos de conocimiento lingüístico que los humanos pueden aprender, así como en los procesos cognitivos descritos en psicolingüística y neurolingüística que conducen a la obtención de conocimiento y su correspondencia con el PPP (modelo de secuenciación de actividades de Presentación-Práctica-Producción). A pesar de que los métodos en general y los procedimientos didácticos en particular implican el desarrollo de un tipo específico de conocimiento (declarativo o procedimental) y una determinada secuencia de actividades en los materiales docentes, apenas se ha concedido importancia alguna a la aplicación de estudios derivados de la psicología cognitiva en la historia de la enseñanza de idiomas.
El estudio de casos en este trabajo analiza una unidad modelo procedente de un libro contemporáneo para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera muy conocido a nivel nacional. Se persiguen los siguientes objetivos: (i) determinar hasta qué punto las actividades favorecen el aprendizaje de conocimiento declarativo o procedimental, y (ii) averiguar si la secuenciación de las actividades concuerda o no con el PPP y, por tanto, con la secuenciación cognitiva DEC->PRO. El análisis se efectuará sobre las actividades, pues éstas constituyen las unidades pedagógicas operativas en los manuales y en el aula.
Palabras clave: materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, secuenciación de actividades, secuenciación cognitiva, conocimiento declarativo, conocimiento procedimental
This paper will focus on the two kinds of knowledge humans may attain (specifically, linguistic knowledge), the cognitive processes as described in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics leading to knowledge attainment and their correspondence to the PPP (Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing). Even though methods in general and specific pedagogical actions imply the development of a specific type of knowledge (declarative or procedural), and a specific activity sequencing in teaching materials and procedures, the application of cognitive studies to language teaching has not been granted much relevance throughout the history of foreign pedagogy.
The analysis of a case-study is undertaken in which a sample lesson from a well-known contemporary textbook is examined with the following aims in mind: (i) to ascertain up to what point its activities favour the attainment of declarative or procedural knowledge, and (ii) to detect whether the activity sequencing agrees or not with the PPP and thus with the DEC->PRO cognitive sequencing. The analysis is performed on the activities of the units, since they constitute the operative pedagogical units both in textbooks and in the classroom.
Keywords: language teaching materials, PPP, activity sequencing, cognitive sequencing, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge
RESUMEN
El presente trabajo se centra en los dos tipos de conocimiento lingüístico que los humanos pueden aprender, así como en los procesos cognitivos descritos en psicolingüística y neurolingüística que conducen a la obtención de conocimiento y su correspondencia con el PPP (modelo de secuenciación de actividades de Presentación-Práctica-Producción). A pesar de que los métodos en general y los procedimientos didácticos en particular implican el desarrollo de un tipo específico de conocimiento (declarativo o procedimental) y una determinada secuencia de actividades en los materiales docentes, apenas se ha concedido importancia alguna a la aplicación de estudios derivados de la psicología cognitiva en la historia de la enseñanza de idiomas.
El estudio de casos en este trabajo analiza una unidad modelo procedente de un libro contemporáneo para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera muy conocido a nivel nacional. Se persiguen los siguientes objetivos: (i) determinar hasta qué punto las actividades favorecen el aprendizaje de conocimiento declarativo o procedimental, y (ii) averiguar si la secuenciación de las actividades concuerda o no con el PPP y, por tanto, con la secuenciación cognitiva DEC->PRO. El análisis se efectuará sobre las actividades, pues éstas constituyen las unidades pedagógicas operativas en los manuales y en el aula.
Palabras clave: materiales para la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, secuenciación de actividades, secuenciación cognitiva, conocimiento declarativo, conocimiento procedimental
ABSTRACT: The psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic perspective of language acquisition requires some essential conditions in vocabulary acquisition: a) repetitive practice, which allows for data to reach long-term memory, and thus become... more
ABSTRACT:
The psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic perspective of language acquisition requires some essential conditions in vocabulary acquisition: a) repetitive practice, which allows for data to reach long-term memory, and thus become proceduralised and automatised; b) how relevant the lexical items are regarding the communicative needs of the learners insofar as communicative relevance is linked to frequency in general linguistic usage; c) the potential in vocabulary acquisition, which will necessarily relate to the amount of new lexical items introduced in each one of the units in textbook; d) the way words are taught, i.e. whether aimed at explicit or incidental learning. In order to analyse and evaluate these issues, we will study the lexical items presented in a specific textbook from the point of view of frequency, distribution along the manual, opportunities for rehearsal and repetition (which will depend on frequency), and the nature of the activities centred on vocabulary. The results of this case study will allow us to check whether or not they may stand a comparison against the findings of psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic research on vocabulary acquisition.
KEYWORDS: vocabulary acquisition, ELT, frequency, practice, corpus linguistics, psycholinguistics
RESUMEN
Desde la perspectiva de la psicolingüística y de la neurolingüística, deben darse algunas condiciones para la adquisición léxica: a) práctica repetitiva, que facilita el paso de los datos a la memoria de larga duración, con la consiguiente procedimentalización y automatización; b) el grado de relevancia respecto a las necesidades comunicativas de los hablantes, teniendo en cuenta que la relevancia comunicativa se correlaciona a su vez con la frecuencia de las palabras en el uso general de la lengua; c) el potencial de adquisición léxica, que se relacionará necesariamente con el número de palabras introducidas en cada unidad de los libros de texto; d) la manera como se enseñan las palabras, ya sea explícita o incidentalmente. Para analizar y valorar estos temas, se estudiará el léxico introducido en un libro de texto en lo relativo a la frecuencia, distribución, oportunidades que ofrece para la repetición (que dependerá de la frecuencia con que aparecen las palabras) y naturaleza de las actividades centradas en el léxico. Los resultados de este análisis nos permitirán también valorar si el manual se ajusta y en qué medida a las más recientes investigaciones nacidas de la psicolingüística y la neurolingüística en relación con la adquisición de vocabulario.
PALABRAS CLAVE: aprendizaje de vocabulario, enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera, frecuencia, práctica, lingüística de corpus, psicolingüística
The psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic perspective of language acquisition requires some essential conditions in vocabulary acquisition: a) repetitive practice, which allows for data to reach long-term memory, and thus become proceduralised and automatised; b) how relevant the lexical items are regarding the communicative needs of the learners insofar as communicative relevance is linked to frequency in general linguistic usage; c) the potential in vocabulary acquisition, which will necessarily relate to the amount of new lexical items introduced in each one of the units in textbook; d) the way words are taught, i.e. whether aimed at explicit or incidental learning. In order to analyse and evaluate these issues, we will study the lexical items presented in a specific textbook from the point of view of frequency, distribution along the manual, opportunities for rehearsal and repetition (which will depend on frequency), and the nature of the activities centred on vocabulary. The results of this case study will allow us to check whether or not they may stand a comparison against the findings of psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic research on vocabulary acquisition.
KEYWORDS: vocabulary acquisition, ELT, frequency, practice, corpus linguistics, psycholinguistics
RESUMEN
Desde la perspectiva de la psicolingüística y de la neurolingüística, deben darse algunas condiciones para la adquisición léxica: a) práctica repetitiva, que facilita el paso de los datos a la memoria de larga duración, con la consiguiente procedimentalización y automatización; b) el grado de relevancia respecto a las necesidades comunicativas de los hablantes, teniendo en cuenta que la relevancia comunicativa se correlaciona a su vez con la frecuencia de las palabras en el uso general de la lengua; c) el potencial de adquisición léxica, que se relacionará necesariamente con el número de palabras introducidas en cada unidad de los libros de texto; d) la manera como se enseñan las palabras, ya sea explícita o incidentalmente. Para analizar y valorar estos temas, se estudiará el léxico introducido en un libro de texto en lo relativo a la frecuencia, distribución, oportunidades que ofrece para la repetición (que dependerá de la frecuencia con que aparecen las palabras) y naturaleza de las actividades centradas en el léxico. Los resultados de este análisis nos permitirán también valorar si el manual se ajusta y en qué medida a las más recientes investigaciones nacidas de la psicolingüística y la neurolingüística en relación con la adquisición de vocabulario.
PALABRAS CLAVE: aprendizaje de vocabulario, enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjera, frecuencia, práctica, lingüística de corpus, psicolingüística
Research Interests:
ABSTRACT: In foreign language teaching research, activity sequencing represents a nearly theoretically and empirically neglected element. This study reports a comparative diachronic analysis of activity sequencing exemplified in two... more
ABSTRACT:
In foreign language teaching research, activity sequencing represents a nearly theoretically and empirically neglected element. This study reports a comparative diachronic analysis of activity sequencing exemplified in two case-studies. Our aim is to uncover the related differences between past and present implementations from pedagogic and psychological perspectives. To accomplish this aim, we drew on Ollendorff’s New Method of Learning to Read, Write, and Speak the Spanish Language (1895) and on a 2005 textbook. Ollendorff’s work embodies one of the first modern attempts to facilitate the study of foreign language grammars. This has not prevented stern attacks to his coursebooks due to his contemporary classification as a representative name within the Grammar-Translation Method. Regarding our procedure, a middle unit of each textbook was examined by means of the Presentation-Practice-Production sequencing teaching model, which constituted our analytical tool. A description of this model from a cognitive viewpoint (Anderson 2000) was also included. The pair of units was examined at both pedagogic and psychological levels. Results indicate: a) a higher sophisticated degree of the current materials concerning the two levels of analysis; b) the value of activity sequencing examination in diachronic studies to critically evaluate present-day negative views of older methods.
KEYWORDS: activity sequencing; coursebook/textbook; Grammar-Translation Method; Ollendorff; Presentation-Practice-Production sequencing model; diachronic analysis; declarative knowledge; procedural knowledge.
RESUMEN:
En la investigación de enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, la secuencia de actividades constituye un elemento prácticamente olvidado teórica y empíricamente. Este trabajo presenta un análisis diacrónico comparativo de la secuenciación de actividades ejemplificada en dos estudios de casos. Nuestro objetivo es desentrañar las diferencias entre implantaciones pasadas y presentes desde perspectivas pedagógicas y psicológicas. Para ello utilizamos Ollendorff’s New Method of Learning to Read, Write, and Speak the Spanish Language (1895) y un libro de texto de 2005. La contribución de Ollendorff encarna uno de los primeros intentos modernos para facilitar el estudio de gramáticas de lenguas extranjeras. Este hecho no ha logrado impedir serias críticas a sus manuales debido a la clasificación contemporánea de Ollendorff como un nombre representativo del método gramática-traducción. En cuanto a nuestro procedimiento, examinamos una unidad intermedia en cada libro a través del modelo didáctico de secuenciación Presentación-Práctica-Producción. Se incluyó una descripción de dicho modelo desde un ángulo cognitivo (Anderson 2000). Ambas unidades fueron examinadas tanto a nivel pedagógico como psicológico. Los resultados indican: a) mayor sofisticación del material actual en ambos niveles de análisis; b) el valor de la exploración de la secuencia de actividades en estudios diacrónicos con el fin de evaluar críticamente opiniones negativas modernas respecto a métodos más antiguos.
PALABRAS CLAVE: secuencia de actividades; manual/libro de texto; método gramática-traducción; Ollendorff; modelo de secuenciación Presentación-Práctica-Producción; análisis diacrónico; conocimiento declarativo; conocimiento procedimental.
In foreign language teaching research, activity sequencing represents a nearly theoretically and empirically neglected element. This study reports a comparative diachronic analysis of activity sequencing exemplified in two case-studies. Our aim is to uncover the related differences between past and present implementations from pedagogic and psychological perspectives. To accomplish this aim, we drew on Ollendorff’s New Method of Learning to Read, Write, and Speak the Spanish Language (1895) and on a 2005 textbook. Ollendorff’s work embodies one of the first modern attempts to facilitate the study of foreign language grammars. This has not prevented stern attacks to his coursebooks due to his contemporary classification as a representative name within the Grammar-Translation Method. Regarding our procedure, a middle unit of each textbook was examined by means of the Presentation-Practice-Production sequencing teaching model, which constituted our analytical tool. A description of this model from a cognitive viewpoint (Anderson 2000) was also included. The pair of units was examined at both pedagogic and psychological levels. Results indicate: a) a higher sophisticated degree of the current materials concerning the two levels of analysis; b) the value of activity sequencing examination in diachronic studies to critically evaluate present-day negative views of older methods.
KEYWORDS: activity sequencing; coursebook/textbook; Grammar-Translation Method; Ollendorff; Presentation-Practice-Production sequencing model; diachronic analysis; declarative knowledge; procedural knowledge.
RESUMEN:
En la investigación de enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, la secuencia de actividades constituye un elemento prácticamente olvidado teórica y empíricamente. Este trabajo presenta un análisis diacrónico comparativo de la secuenciación de actividades ejemplificada en dos estudios de casos. Nuestro objetivo es desentrañar las diferencias entre implantaciones pasadas y presentes desde perspectivas pedagógicas y psicológicas. Para ello utilizamos Ollendorff’s New Method of Learning to Read, Write, and Speak the Spanish Language (1895) y un libro de texto de 2005. La contribución de Ollendorff encarna uno de los primeros intentos modernos para facilitar el estudio de gramáticas de lenguas extranjeras. Este hecho no ha logrado impedir serias críticas a sus manuales debido a la clasificación contemporánea de Ollendorff como un nombre representativo del método gramática-traducción. En cuanto a nuestro procedimiento, examinamos una unidad intermedia en cada libro a través del modelo didáctico de secuenciación Presentación-Práctica-Producción. Se incluyó una descripción de dicho modelo desde un ángulo cognitivo (Anderson 2000). Ambas unidades fueron examinadas tanto a nivel pedagógico como psicológico. Los resultados indican: a) mayor sofisticación del material actual en ambos niveles de análisis; b) el valor de la exploración de la secuencia de actividades en estudios diacrónicos con el fin de evaluar críticamente opiniones negativas modernas respecto a métodos más antiguos.
PALABRAS CLAVE: secuencia de actividades; manual/libro de texto; método gramática-traducción; Ollendorff; modelo de secuenciación Presentación-Práctica-Producción; análisis diacrónico; conocimiento declarativo; conocimiento procedimental.
ABSTRACT: In this paper we set out to examine the natural, non-elicited, occurrence of adverbial hedges in the production of (a) Spanish learners ofEAP and (b) British students of Modern Languages. Our research is based on three premises.... more
ABSTRACT: In this paper we set out to examine the natural, non-elicited, occurrence of adverbial hedges in the production of (a) Spanish learners ofEAP and (b) British students of Modern Languages. Our research is based on three premises. First, it is data-driven. Our corpora are made up of interviews which were conducted following the same methodology and mirroring the tasks in the LINDSEI oral corpus. Second, linguistically it builds on Biber (1988) and Biber, Conrad, Reppen, Byrd and Helt (2002) Multidimensional Analysis of language, which holds that there
is a tendency for linguistic features of morpho-syntactic and semantic nature to cluster together around dimensions of use. Finally, it is cross-linguistic, as we present a comparison between the productions of different speakers performing exactly the same communicative tasks.
Results show important differences in the frequency of use as well as in the contexts of use of adverbial hedges in these two comparable communities of use. The discussion offers insights into the interplay between quantitative research methodology for language analysis and pedagogical concerns.
KEYWORDS: corpus linguistics, hedges, Multidimensional Analysis, contrastive analysis
is a tendency for linguistic features of morpho-syntactic and semantic nature to cluster together around dimensions of use. Finally, it is cross-linguistic, as we present a comparison between the productions of different speakers performing exactly the same communicative tasks.
Results show important differences in the frequency of use as well as in the contexts of use of adverbial hedges in these two comparable communities of use. The discussion offers insights into the interplay between quantitative research methodology for language analysis and pedagogical concerns.
KEYWORDS: corpus linguistics, hedges, Multidimensional Analysis, contrastive analysis
RESUMEN. Los estudios sobre oralidad han adquirido una enorme relevancia en las últimas décadas coincidiendo con la eclosión de las investigaciones con corpus lingüísticos y la creación de herramientas de tratamiento textual cada vez más... more
RESUMEN. Los estudios sobre oralidad han adquirido una enorme relevancia en las últimas décadas coincidiendo con la eclosión de las investigaciones con corpus lingüísticos y la creación de herramientas de tratamiento textual cada vez más sofisticadas. En este trabajo llevamos a cabo una labor exhaustiva de análisis de artículos publicados en quince revistas internacionales de máximo prestigio y relevancia en el área de la lingüística aplicada durante los años 2004 y 2005 para determinar cuáles son las líneas de trabajo más notables en este campo y así valorar en qué punto se encuentran las investigaciones en este área. A efectos de estudio hemos clasificado los trabajos analizados en tres grandes bloques dentro del campo de la oralidad: estructuras mononucleares, estructuras complejas y unidades sintácticas y pragmáticas.
Lo primero que cabe resaltar es la variedad en cuanto a los textos analizados, así como a los contextos de estudio y lenguas estudiadas. Sí existe, sin embargo, homogeneidad en cuanto al tipo de análisis llevado a cabo, que es fundamentalmente cualitativo para las estructuras mononucleares y cuantitativo para las complejas. Las unidades sintácticas y pragmáticas, sin embargo, participan de ambos tipos de análisis. Una de las carencias detectadas en nuestra investigación es la ausencia de trabajos publicados que aborden un estudio longitudinal utilizando muestras de los mismos informantes en puntos temporales diferentes.
PALABRAS CLAVE. Oralidad, investigación, análisis multidimensíonal, corpus.
ABSTRACT. Studies on orality have acquired great relevance in the last decades along with the appearance of corpus linguistics research and the creation of increasingly more sophisticated textual analysis tools. In this work, we have carried out an exhaustive analysts of articles published in fifteen international journals of the highest prestige and relevance in the area of Applied Linguistics during the years 2004 and 2005. Our purpose is to determine the most outstanding uses of work in orality are and hence to uncover at which point the research in this area stands. For the purpose of our study we have classified the works analysed in three main blocks: mononuclear structures, complex structures and syntactic and pragmatic structures.
The first thing that needs highlighting is the variety of texts under scrutiny, as well as the contexts of study and the languages examined. Nonetheless, there exists homogeneity regarding the type of analysis employed, which is fundamental/y qualitative for the mononuclear structures and quantitative for the complex ones. Within the latter, both types of analysis are involved in the syntactic and pragmatic units. One of the shortcomings we found is the fact that none of the published works is based on a longitudinal study with samples of the same informants at different time points.
KEYWORDS. Orality, research, multidimensional analysis, corpus.
Lo primero que cabe resaltar es la variedad en cuanto a los textos analizados, así como a los contextos de estudio y lenguas estudiadas. Sí existe, sin embargo, homogeneidad en cuanto al tipo de análisis llevado a cabo, que es fundamentalmente cualitativo para las estructuras mononucleares y cuantitativo para las complejas. Las unidades sintácticas y pragmáticas, sin embargo, participan de ambos tipos de análisis. Una de las carencias detectadas en nuestra investigación es la ausencia de trabajos publicados que aborden un estudio longitudinal utilizando muestras de los mismos informantes en puntos temporales diferentes.
PALABRAS CLAVE. Oralidad, investigación, análisis multidimensíonal, corpus.
ABSTRACT. Studies on orality have acquired great relevance in the last decades along with the appearance of corpus linguistics research and the creation of increasingly more sophisticated textual analysis tools. In this work, we have carried out an exhaustive analysts of articles published in fifteen international journals of the highest prestige and relevance in the area of Applied Linguistics during the years 2004 and 2005. Our purpose is to determine the most outstanding uses of work in orality are and hence to uncover at which point the research in this area stands. For the purpose of our study we have classified the works analysed in three main blocks: mononuclear structures, complex structures and syntactic and pragmatic structures.
The first thing that needs highlighting is the variety of texts under scrutiny, as well as the contexts of study and the languages examined. Nonetheless, there exists homogeneity regarding the type of analysis employed, which is fundamental/y qualitative for the mononuclear structures and quantitative for the complex ones. Within the latter, both types of analysis are involved in the syntactic and pragmatic units. One of the shortcomings we found is the fact that none of the published works is based on a longitudinal study with samples of the same informants at different time points.
KEYWORDS. Orality, research, multidimensional analysis, corpus.
RESUMEN: En las dos últimas décadas, el análisis del discurso se ha valido con reiterada frecuencia de las técnicas propias de la lingüística del corpus para explorar un campo de investigación en auge: la variación lingüística. Sin... more
RESUMEN: En las dos últimas décadas, el análisis del discurso se ha valido con reiterada frecuencia de las técnicas propias de la lingüística del corpus para explorar un campo de investigación en auge: la variación lingüística. Sin duda, son los métodos cuantitativos de análisis los que definitivamente han ganado un mayor peso en nuestra área de conocimiento y, quizás por mimesis respecto a otras ciencias sociales, se configuran en la actualidad como el paradigma de referencia científica en las publicaciones de más prestigio en el ámbito lingüístico. De especial relevancia en este campo es la metodología de análisis multidimensional de Biber (véanse 1988, 2003).
El presente trabajo examina la producción científica de los años 2004 y 2005 en el ámbito de la lingüística aplicada en dieciséis revistas de prestigio académico que, de manera directa o indirecta, han abordado el análisis de la oralidad. Con la finalidad de categorizar la investigación en el campo y evaluar las líneas de investigación actuales, se ofrece una taxonomía de los estudios publicados en estas revistas, así como una discusión sobre las perspectivas de investigación futura.
PALABRAS CLAVE: oralidad, investigación, análisis multidimensional, corpus
Key words: orality, research, multidimensional analysis, corpus
El presente trabajo examina la producción científica de los años 2004 y 2005 en el ámbito de la lingüística aplicada en dieciséis revistas de prestigio académico que, de manera directa o indirecta, han abordado el análisis de la oralidad. Con la finalidad de categorizar la investigación en el campo y evaluar las líneas de investigación actuales, se ofrece una taxonomía de los estudios publicados en estas revistas, así como una discusión sobre las perspectivas de investigación futura.
PALABRAS CLAVE: oralidad, investigación, análisis multidimensional, corpus
Key words: orality, research, multidimensional analysis, corpus
Material docente del Bloque 3 de 'El inglés en la enseñanza secundaria y escuelas oficiales de idiomas (1)'. Máster Universitario en Formación del Profesorado de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria y Bachillerato, Formación Profesional, Enseñanzas de Idiomas y Enseñanzas Artísticas (Especialidad: Inglés como Lengua Extranjera)more
Alonso, I., & Criado, R. (Eds.). (2022). Perspectives and Good Practices in English Language Teacher Training. Síntesis.ISBN: 9788413571638; ISBN Digital: 9788413577265
ABSTRACT: This book is concerned with activity sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching. Part I includes the operationalisation of the construct of activity sequencing, definition and analysis of the P-P-P... more
ABSTRACT: This book is concerned with activity sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching. Part I includes the operationalisation of the construct of activity sequencing, definition and analysis of the P-P-P (“Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing”) and a critical review of the CPM (“Communicative Processes-based model of activity sequencing”) and other contemporary sequencing models from pedagogic and cognitive perspectives. Part II describes the quasi-experimental study implemented to determine the influence on learning of the CPM (“Communicative Processes-based model of activity sequencing”) in contrast to the P-P-P.
Key findings confirm the importance of activity sequencing in TEFL and draw our attention to the fact that, in order to be effective, activity sequencing should go hand in hand with the sequence(s) of cognitive processes, a subject of great interest in psycholinguistics.
The book will be valuable to researchers in foreign language teaching methodology and post-graduate students in applied linguistics, particularly for those who believe in the need of developing empirical studies in real-life classrooms and of applying Cognitive Psychology to foreign language teaching research.
KEYWORDS: activity sequencing, cognitive processes, instructed second language acquisition, TEFL, language teaching materials, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge
Key findings confirm the importance of activity sequencing in TEFL and draw our attention to the fact that, in order to be effective, activity sequencing should go hand in hand with the sequence(s) of cognitive processes, a subject of great interest in psycholinguistics.
The book will be valuable to researchers in foreign language teaching methodology and post-graduate students in applied linguistics, particularly for those who believe in the need of developing empirical studies in real-life classrooms and of applying Cognitive Psychology to foreign language teaching research.
KEYWORDS: activity sequencing, cognitive processes, instructed second language acquisition, TEFL, language teaching materials, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge
This L2 writing study intends to contribute to previous empirical work on the language learning potential (LLP) of writing resulting from the processing of direct written corrective feedback (DWCF). The study is framed in previous studies... more
This L2 writing study intends to contribute to previous empirical work on the language learning potential (LLP) of writing resulting from the processing of direct
written corrective feedback (DWCF). The study is framed in previous studies on the LLP of languaging (Swain, 2010) and of L2 writing/feedback processing (Manchón,
2011). Languaging, either oral (Swain et al., 2009) or written (Cerezo, Manchón & Nicolás-Conesa, in press; Nicolás-Conesa, Roca de Larios & Monteverde, 2017) is
considered to constitute an effective L2 learning tool by drawing students’ attention to language problems and by promoting learners’ reflection on inconsistencies in
their L2 knowledge (Swain, 2006). The LLP of feedback is purported to be related to the depth of processing (DoP), particularly when learners go beyond the
superficial noticing of errors (Qi & Lapkin, 2011), and reflect on the nature of their errors proposing solutions to them (Bitchener, 2012). Processing feedback in
collaboration is purported to encourage deeper reflection processes by engaging in collective scaffolding to solve problems and obtain resolutions otherwise
potentially unreached in IW (Wigglesworth & Storch, 2012). Studies that have compared the texts in CW with those generated by individual students have shown that collaborative texts are more accurate but no significant differences have been found for complexity (e.g., Basterrechea & García-Mayo 2013; McDonough & García
Fuentes 2015). However, most of the studies about CW have been conducted with fairly advanced students (Wigglesworth & Storch 2012). On the other hand,
empirical studies about the effect of languaging on the linguistic characteristics of written texts are relatively scarce, especially in low-L2 proficiency students, whose
degree of noticing may be low due to their L2 knowledge (Qi & Lapkin, 2001). The present study aims at shedding light on the LLP of writing through the provision and
processing of direct feedback in low-L2 proficiency learners under two different experimental conditions (IW and CW). The participants were 118 Spanish secondaryschools students. Our data sources were (i) the initial texts written (IW, n=54 or CW, n=32 pairs) in response to a problem-solving writing task (pre-test); (ii) the
languaging forms completed (IW or CW); and (iii) the text revisions produced (IW or CW). The participants in both the IW and CW conditions were divided into an
experimental group and a control group. The participants in the experimental group received unfocused DWCF and they were required to process the feedback in a
languaging session. The participants in the control group did not receive feedback and they were asked to identify the errors on their own so as to reflect on them.
The texts were analysed in terms of complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) measures. The coding scheme for the analysis of DoP was data-driven but also
theoretically informed by Leow’s research (2015). Non-parametric statistics were conducted. Results will be discussed in light of the language learning affordances of
feedback processing for language learning and for the improvement of pedagogical practices in the EFL classroom.
written corrective feedback (DWCF). The study is framed in previous studies on the LLP of languaging (Swain, 2010) and of L2 writing/feedback processing (Manchón,
2011). Languaging, either oral (Swain et al., 2009) or written (Cerezo, Manchón & Nicolás-Conesa, in press; Nicolás-Conesa, Roca de Larios & Monteverde, 2017) is
considered to constitute an effective L2 learning tool by drawing students’ attention to language problems and by promoting learners’ reflection on inconsistencies in
their L2 knowledge (Swain, 2006). The LLP of feedback is purported to be related to the depth of processing (DoP), particularly when learners go beyond the
superficial noticing of errors (Qi & Lapkin, 2011), and reflect on the nature of their errors proposing solutions to them (Bitchener, 2012). Processing feedback in
collaboration is purported to encourage deeper reflection processes by engaging in collective scaffolding to solve problems and obtain resolutions otherwise
potentially unreached in IW (Wigglesworth & Storch, 2012). Studies that have compared the texts in CW with those generated by individual students have shown that collaborative texts are more accurate but no significant differences have been found for complexity (e.g., Basterrechea & García-Mayo 2013; McDonough & García
Fuentes 2015). However, most of the studies about CW have been conducted with fairly advanced students (Wigglesworth & Storch 2012). On the other hand,
empirical studies about the effect of languaging on the linguistic characteristics of written texts are relatively scarce, especially in low-L2 proficiency students, whose
degree of noticing may be low due to their L2 knowledge (Qi & Lapkin, 2001). The present study aims at shedding light on the LLP of writing through the provision and
processing of direct feedback in low-L2 proficiency learners under two different experimental conditions (IW and CW). The participants were 118 Spanish secondaryschools students. Our data sources were (i) the initial texts written (IW, n=54 or CW, n=32 pairs) in response to a problem-solving writing task (pre-test); (ii) the
languaging forms completed (IW or CW); and (iii) the text revisions produced (IW or CW). The participants in both the IW and CW conditions were divided into an
experimental group and a control group. The participants in the experimental group received unfocused DWCF and they were required to process the feedback in a
languaging session. The participants in the control group did not receive feedback and they were asked to identify the errors on their own so as to reflect on them.
The texts were analysed in terms of complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) measures. The coding scheme for the analysis of DoP was data-driven but also
theoretically informed by Leow’s research (2015). Non-parametric statistics were conducted. Results will be discussed in light of the language learning affordances of
feedback processing for language learning and for the improvement of pedagogical practices in the EFL classroom.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
In the history of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT), there has been a notorious tension between two opposed approaches (Stern, 1992): the focused analytic approach (centred on forms) and the experiential approach (of a natural character,... more
In the history of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT), there has been a notorious tension between two opposed approaches (Stern, 1992): the focused analytic approach (centred on forms) and the experiential approach (of a natural character, thus centred on communication). Both approaches are respectively linked to explicit knowledge –conscious knowledge of the formal system of a language– and implicit knowledge –not amenable to consciousness; this is knowledge resulting from the communicative use of language. Currently there are many authors who consider that foreign language teaching targeted at adults which is solely based on activities centred on the communicative message is not sufficient for an optimal development of language knowledge (DeKeyser, 1998, 2007, 2009; Spada, 2011, etc.) and thus advocate “form-focused instruction”. Form-focused instruction offers several variants following Long’s (1991) original distinction between “Focus-on-FormS” (FonFs), corresponding to the analytic approach, and “Focus-on-form” (FonF), which shows differing degrees of explicitness or intensity in the attention triggered by the students to the linguistic items as contextualised within communicative lessons. The specialised literature includes many works dealing with this distinction at a theoretical level (Brown & Larson-Hall, 2012; deGraaf & Housen, 2009; Doughty & Williams, 1998; Ellis et al., 2002, etc.), but there is no existing research on how to differentiate activities centred on forms (both FonFs and FonF) and on messages with accuracy and reliability, or which a precise degree of explicitness and implicitness is carried by activities centred on forms. The purpose of this paper is to report and justify a proposal to fill this research gap. The proposal consists of constructing and validating two scales to categorise pedagogical activities extracted from textbooks: a general scale, which will reliably distinguish activities centred on forms from activities focused on communicative messages; and a specific scale, which will measure the degree of explicit and implicit teaching as precisely as possible in the activities previously categorised as centred on forms (FonFs and FonF). The accomplishment of these two validated, user-friendly tools will provide valuable help for teachers, teacher-trainees and material authors concerning their design or selection of teaching activities to be implemented in the FL classroom. It will be also be noticeably useful for researchers who wish to implement theoretical and/or empirical studies about explicit and implicit knowledge from a pedagogical perspective.
Research Interests:
This paper presents the results of a study that measures intensive focus on form in combination with prior knowledge of the target form. No statistically significant differences are found among the experimental and baseline conditions.... more
This paper presents the results of a study that measures intensive focus on form in combination with prior knowledge of the target form. No statistically significant differences are found among the experimental and baseline conditions. Results are discussed in terms of the low formal explicitness of the teaching techniques.
Research Interests:
The Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing (PPP) has been the most frequent pattern of activity sequencing in foreign language teaching materials throughout the 20th century and it still pervades them in this... more
The Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing (PPP) has been the most frequent pattern of activity sequencing in foreign language teaching materials throughout the 20th century and it still pervades them in this century (Criado, 2013; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Tomlinson, 2011). The objective of this paper is to offer a diachronic analysis of PPP from both pedagogical and cognitive perspectives in EFL teaching materials. The addition of a cognitive perspective in the study of history of language teaching methodology helps to assess the potential contribution of methods to language learning (DeKeyser, 1998; Johnson, 1996), and thus contributes to explain the failure and/or success of such methods. A total of four textbooks were selected and they belonged to the following different methods and approaches: Grammar-Translation Method, Situational Language Teaching Method and the early and late conceptions of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach. They are all targeted at an elementary level and their dates of publication are respectively 1898, 1967, 1984 and 2011. All the activities from a unit randomly chosen from the middle of each textbook was analysed with pedagogical and cognitive parameters. By means of the former the goal of the activities and the pedagogical strategy to reach such a goal was examined. The cognitive analysis consisted of the application of Anderson’s model of skill learning (Anderson, 1982; Taatgen & Anderson, 2008, etc.) to the activities, so as to determine their emphasis on declarative –formal knowledge or knowledge about the language– and procedural knowledge –knowledge that or how to do something, which in language teaching terms equals the mastery of communicative proficiency. Results show that despite certain differences in the format and order of its phases, PPP seems to remain constant in all such methods and approaches, with an emphasis on the “Practice” phase and scarce activities to foster full proceduralization. An important conclusion elucidated by the pedagogical and cognitive analyses is the hasty enthusiasm with which “old” methods were eagerly dismissed in the past as soon as “new” methods made their appearance.
Research Interests:
The Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing (PPP) has been the traditional activity sequencing pattern in EFL textbooks since the 1950s onwards. With the advent of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), it became the... more
The Presentation-Practice-Production model of activity sequencing (PPP) has been the traditional activity sequencing pattern in EFL textbooks since the 1950s onwards. With the advent of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), it became the target of criticisms due to its condition as the standard teaching pattern in the Structural Methods (Lewis, 1996; Scrivener, 1996; Tomlinson, 2011; Van den Branden et al., 2009; Willis & Willis, 2007; etc.). However, “No language course these days offers an undiluted diet of the dry meaningless PPP structured lessons that so many commentators like to set up as a straw-man foe” (Hopkins, 1995: 11).
The objective of this paper is to show how PPP complies with “skill acquisition theory” (Anderson, 2010; Anderson & Fincham, 1994; Anderson et al., 2004; Taatgen & Anderson, 2008). This theory has been widely applied in SLA (DeKeyser, 1997, 2007; DeKeyser & Sokalski, 1996; Johnson, 1996; O’Malley et al., 1987) but hardly ever considered in research on Materials Development (Criado, 2010). In brief, skill acquisition theory draws on three types of knowledge: declarative –formal knowledge or knowledge about the language; procedural knowledge –knowledge that or how to do something, and automatic knowledge –fully proceduralised knowledge reflecting automatic and flawless performance, which in language teaching terms equals the mastery of communicative proficiency. Also, this theory supports a DECPRO learning sequence.
The correspondence of PPP with skill acquisition theory will be illustrated by means of the pedagogical and cognitive analyses of several units from current EFL textbooks, all randomly selected. Results show that PPP fundamentally complies with skill acquisition theory in a) its actual sequencing, which in cognitive terms reflects DECPRO, and b) the typology of activities implemented for each P phase so as to foster DECPRO. Pedagogical implications caution both against the consideration of PPP as the “one and only” solution in Foreign Language Teaching praxis and against the formulation of severe criticisms targeted at PPP.
The objective of this paper is to show how PPP complies with “skill acquisition theory” (Anderson, 2010; Anderson & Fincham, 1994; Anderson et al., 2004; Taatgen & Anderson, 2008). This theory has been widely applied in SLA (DeKeyser, 1997, 2007; DeKeyser & Sokalski, 1996; Johnson, 1996; O’Malley et al., 1987) but hardly ever considered in research on Materials Development (Criado, 2010). In brief, skill acquisition theory draws on three types of knowledge: declarative –formal knowledge or knowledge about the language; procedural knowledge –knowledge that or how to do something, and automatic knowledge –fully proceduralised knowledge reflecting automatic and flawless performance, which in language teaching terms equals the mastery of communicative proficiency. Also, this theory supports a DECPRO learning sequence.
The correspondence of PPP with skill acquisition theory will be illustrated by means of the pedagogical and cognitive analyses of several units from current EFL textbooks, all randomly selected. Results show that PPP fundamentally complies with skill acquisition theory in a) its actual sequencing, which in cognitive terms reflects DECPRO, and b) the typology of activities implemented for each P phase so as to foster DECPRO. Pedagogical implications caution both against the consideration of PPP as the “one and only” solution in Foreign Language Teaching praxis and against the formulation of severe criticisms targeted at PPP.
Research Interests:
The present study is aimed at investigating the effect of intentional and incidental learning modes on EFL adults’ vocabulary learning and the relationship between vocabulary gains and these two learning modes. The textbook’s explicit... more
The present study is aimed at investigating the effect of intentional and incidental learning modes on EFL adults’ vocabulary learning and the relationship between vocabulary gains and these two learning modes. The textbook’s explicit vocabulary activities (Nation’s 2001 “language-focused-learning strand”) are considered to trigger the intentional learning mode. The lexical frequency of the textbook’s receptive texts and the teacher’s talk is associated with the incidental learning mode, which is the by-product of any activity not explicitly targeted at lexical acquisition (Laufer, 2003). To the best of our knowledge, no previous works have approached this issue from both perspectives in the same study, as they have examined the incidence in children’s vocabulary learning of the textbook’s and teacher’s frequency of lexical input (Donzelli, 2007) or the effects on (young) adult lexical learning of extensive reading (e.g. Webb & Chang, submitted) and Form-Focused Instruction (e.g. Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2011).
This work is an ongoing fifteen-week experimental study with a repeated-measures design. The participants are 18 Spanish EFL undergraduate learners (A2-B1). 100 target words were quasi-randomly selected from the textbook (function words and proper names were excluded). Their frequency of occurrence was quantified in the textbook’s written and aural texts and will be computed in the teacher’s talk. For this purpose the lessons are being audio-recorded.
Subjects completed a surprise pre-test; they will also be administered an unannounced post-test and an announced three-week-delayed post-test (the three being tailor-made). The tests consist of the written recognition and production of the targeted words. These will be randomly assigned to either condition (recognition and production) in each of the three tests.
The following aspects will be analysed: subjects’ total vocabulary gains and retention rates; correlations between these two and a) lexical frequency in the explicit vocabulary activities; b) lexical frequency in the receptive texts; c) lexical frequency in the teacher’s talk; d) lexical frequency in the receptive texts and teachers’ talk. Research and pedagogical implications will be discussed.
This work is an ongoing fifteen-week experimental study with a repeated-measures design. The participants are 18 Spanish EFL undergraduate learners (A2-B1). 100 target words were quasi-randomly selected from the textbook (function words and proper names were excluded). Their frequency of occurrence was quantified in the textbook’s written and aural texts and will be computed in the teacher’s talk. For this purpose the lessons are being audio-recorded.
Subjects completed a surprise pre-test; they will also be administered an unannounced post-test and an announced three-week-delayed post-test (the three being tailor-made). The tests consist of the written recognition and production of the targeted words. These will be randomly assigned to either condition (recognition and production) in each of the three tests.
The following aspects will be analysed: subjects’ total vocabulary gains and retention rates; correlations between these two and a) lexical frequency in the explicit vocabulary activities; b) lexical frequency in the receptive texts; c) lexical frequency in the teacher’s talk; d) lexical frequency in the receptive texts and teachers’ talk. Research and pedagogical implications will be discussed.
"This paper is premised on two key ideas in current FLT practice and research: a) intercultural competence and not communicative competence alone is a basic requirement to attain complete and successful L2 mastery (Byram, 1997 and... more
"This paper is premised on two key ideas in current FLT practice and research: a) intercultural competence and not communicative competence alone is a basic requirement to attain complete and successful L2 mastery (Byram, 1997 and elsewhere; Common European Framework of Reference, 2001; Corbett, 2003; Kramsch, 2001, etc.) and b) the integrative orientation of motivation (or positive attitudes towards the L2 speakers and their culture) is basic in L2 learning (Dörnyei, 1994, 2001; Dörnyei & Ottó, 1998; Gardner, 2010; Williams & Burden, 1997).
The FLT literature has recently drawn our attention to what intercultural competence involves and to the need of developing it (see Guilherme, 2004 and Liddicoat, 2011, for a review). There also exist some related broad pedagogical frameworks (e.g. Liddicoat et al., 2003) or critical evaluations of the cultural component in FLT textbooks and derived suggestions for adaptation (Pulverness, 2003). Much more scarce, however, are the proposals which actually focus on other classroom-based aspects of culture teaching, such as lesson planning or activity design. Exceptions can be found in Mason (2010) and Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004).
The objective of this paper is to offer a systematized lesson planning framework for the teaching of a cultural element which has tended to be neglected in the FLT literature: cultural scripts. Scripts (Shank & Abelson, 1977) constitute proceduralised sequences of events of a temporal, cause-and-effect nature that make up daily stereotyped situations. By extrapolation, scripts can also be considered cognitive sequences of events for the culturally-embedded situations of a certain community of speakers (Criado, 2009). It is expected that by teaching cultural scripts L2 students will develop intercultural awareness –a core element of intercultural competence– and thus their integrative orientation of motivation will be positively enhanced.
I will illustrate this pedagogical framework with an EFL lesson devised by myself. The lesson will be analysed from the following viewpoints: pedagogical (in terms of language objectives), cognitive (compliance of the lesson with human sequential cognitive processes of knowledge attainment), cultural and motivational. By means of this analysis I will attempt to show that the lesson reflects a sound pedagogy where “experiences of language become opportunities for experiences of culture” (Liddicoat, 2011: 842), and thus language learning may hopefully become an enjoyable experience.
Keywords: culture, FLT, materials development, motivation, scripts
"
The FLT literature has recently drawn our attention to what intercultural competence involves and to the need of developing it (see Guilherme, 2004 and Liddicoat, 2011, for a review). There also exist some related broad pedagogical frameworks (e.g. Liddicoat et al., 2003) or critical evaluations of the cultural component in FLT textbooks and derived suggestions for adaptation (Pulverness, 2003). Much more scarce, however, are the proposals which actually focus on other classroom-based aspects of culture teaching, such as lesson planning or activity design. Exceptions can be found in Mason (2010) and Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004).
The objective of this paper is to offer a systematized lesson planning framework for the teaching of a cultural element which has tended to be neglected in the FLT literature: cultural scripts. Scripts (Shank & Abelson, 1977) constitute proceduralised sequences of events of a temporal, cause-and-effect nature that make up daily stereotyped situations. By extrapolation, scripts can also be considered cognitive sequences of events for the culturally-embedded situations of a certain community of speakers (Criado, 2009). It is expected that by teaching cultural scripts L2 students will develop intercultural awareness –a core element of intercultural competence– and thus their integrative orientation of motivation will be positively enhanced.
I will illustrate this pedagogical framework with an EFL lesson devised by myself. The lesson will be analysed from the following viewpoints: pedagogical (in terms of language objectives), cognitive (compliance of the lesson with human sequential cognitive processes of knowledge attainment), cultural and motivational. By means of this analysis I will attempt to show that the lesson reflects a sound pedagogy where “experiences of language become opportunities for experiences of culture” (Liddicoat, 2011: 842), and thus language learning may hopefully become an enjoyable experience.
Keywords: culture, FLT, materials development, motivation, scripts
"
This paper reports a pilot study targeted at devising a validated scale to measure the explicit and implicit load of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) activities. Reliability and criterion validity of the scores from 5 teachers and 5... more
This paper reports a pilot study targeted at devising a validated scale to measure the explicit and implicit load of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) activities. Reliability and criterion validity of the scores from 5 teachers and 5 applied linguists on 25 randomly-selected activities will be assessed.
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the imperative need to consider a cognitive perspective when assessing language teaching methods so as to uncover their true potential contribution to language learning. Surprisingly enough, this... more
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the imperative need to consider a cognitive perspective when assessing language teaching methods so as to uncover their true potential contribution to language learning. Surprisingly enough, this perspective has been missing in much of the literature in Foreign Language Pedagogy.
In particular, I will argue that three diametrically opposed methods at a pedagogical level such as the Grammar-Translation Method (G-T), the Direct Method (DM) and the Audiolingual Method (ALM) foster similar cognitive types of knowledge through different learning processes. This explains their similar outcome in students’ language learning despite differences in their pedagogical tenets and advocated strategies. Such an outcome is far from communicative proficiency –in pedagogical terms– or automatized, implicit knowledge –in cognitive terms. The reasons for this are their intertwined emphasis on the development of declarative and explicit knowledge (at the expense of automatized, implicit knowledge). This argumentation will be illustrated with excerpts from real-life teaching materials.
In particular, I will argue that three diametrically opposed methods at a pedagogical level such as the Grammar-Translation Method (G-T), the Direct Method (DM) and the Audiolingual Method (ALM) foster similar cognitive types of knowledge through different learning processes. This explains their similar outcome in students’ language learning despite differences in their pedagogical tenets and advocated strategies. Such an outcome is far from communicative proficiency –in pedagogical terms– or automatized, implicit knowledge –in cognitive terms. The reasons for this are their intertwined emphasis on the development of declarative and explicit knowledge (at the expense of automatized, implicit knowledge). This argumentation will be illustrated with excerpts from real-life teaching materials.
"The world is full of people who know a great deal about English, but who find it difficult to create a sentence in the language” (Johnson, 2008: 101. Author’s emphasis). This quotation should sound familiar to most EFL teachers in... more
"The world is full of people who know a great deal about English, but who find it difficult to create a sentence in the language” (Johnson, 2008: 101. Author’s emphasis). This quotation should sound familiar to most EFL teachers in countries such as Spain, where too many students finish their Higher Secondary Education without having attained a B1 level –despite legislation requirements.
This paper is aimed at shedding some light on this issue by calling the ELT professionals’ attention on the need to be aware about basic research insights from Cognitive Psychology. Indeed, ELT will be more useful if it activates the type and sequencing of brain-determined processes targeted at knowledge acquisition and consolidation as revealed by Cognitive Psychology studies.
Accordingly, in this presentation I will focus on two interrelated aspects:
1) Two well-accepted types of knowledge in Cognitive Psychology which are involved in learning: declarative knowledge or “know-that”, i.e. the formal aspects of a language, and procedural knowledge or “know-how”, i.e. full communicative competence –the ideal goal of ELT.
2) The optimal cognitive sequences for the attainment of procedural knowledge and their pedagogical adaptations for the ELT classroom.
It will be emphasized that the addition of a cognitive perspective to lesson planning should not be regarded as excluding all considerations about the emotional factor of language learning (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) but that both perspectives can be complementary.
The ELT application of the above cognitive concepts and the consideration of student’s motivation will be illustrated by means of the following pedagogical strategy: the “Communicative Processes-Based Model of Activity Sequencing” (CPM), which has been reported as a sound theoretical proposal in the teaching of cultural scripts in ELT (Criado, 2009) and has been empirically tested as an effective way of lesson planning in general ELT courses for adults (Criado, 2010).
REFERENCES
Criado, R. (2009). Taking scripts as a model of lesson organisation for the integration of culture and language in ELT. Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, 22, 295-314.
Criado, R. (2010). Activity Sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching Textbooks. A Cognitive and Communicative Processes-Based Perspective. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Johnson, K. (2008). An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. (2nd ed.). Harlow, Essex, London; New York: Longman.
Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
"
This paper is aimed at shedding some light on this issue by calling the ELT professionals’ attention on the need to be aware about basic research insights from Cognitive Psychology. Indeed, ELT will be more useful if it activates the type and sequencing of brain-determined processes targeted at knowledge acquisition and consolidation as revealed by Cognitive Psychology studies.
Accordingly, in this presentation I will focus on two interrelated aspects:
1) Two well-accepted types of knowledge in Cognitive Psychology which are involved in learning: declarative knowledge or “know-that”, i.e. the formal aspects of a language, and procedural knowledge or “know-how”, i.e. full communicative competence –the ideal goal of ELT.
2) The optimal cognitive sequences for the attainment of procedural knowledge and their pedagogical adaptations for the ELT classroom.
It will be emphasized that the addition of a cognitive perspective to lesson planning should not be regarded as excluding all considerations about the emotional factor of language learning (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) but that both perspectives can be complementary.
The ELT application of the above cognitive concepts and the consideration of student’s motivation will be illustrated by means of the following pedagogical strategy: the “Communicative Processes-Based Model of Activity Sequencing” (CPM), which has been reported as a sound theoretical proposal in the teaching of cultural scripts in ELT (Criado, 2009) and has been empirically tested as an effective way of lesson planning in general ELT courses for adults (Criado, 2010).
REFERENCES
Criado, R. (2009). Taking scripts as a model of lesson organisation for the integration of culture and language in ELT. Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, 22, 295-314.
Criado, R. (2010). Activity Sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching Textbooks. A Cognitive and Communicative Processes-Based Perspective. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Johnson, K. (2008). An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. (2nd ed.). Harlow, Essex, London; New York: Longman.
Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
"
Abundant opportunities for repetition and practice are the main door to access vocabulary consolidation in SLA studies focused on reading and vocabulary development (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2011; Nation & Wang, 1999; Waring, 2003;... more
Abundant opportunities for repetition and practice are the main door to access vocabulary consolidation in SLA studies focused on reading and vocabulary development (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2011; Nation & Wang, 1999; Waring, 2003; Webb, 2007). However, to our knowledge no previous studies have specifically analysed the role of lexical frequency in an instructed SLA context where both word frequency in the teaching materials and in the teacher’s talk are considered.
Our goal addresses this issue by implementing an ongoing four-week experimental study with a repeated-measures design. The participants were 17 Spanish EFL undergraduate learners with a low-intermediate level (A2-B1). A list with the new words selected as such by the textbook was compiled for the units covered by the experimental period. The frequency of occurrence of such words was quantified in the textbook and is currently being computed in the teacher’s talk when implementing the activities in the classroom –both the actual number of times that the targeted words are repeated by her and the number of times that she prompts the students to repeat them (e.g. “repeat”, “once again”, etc.). For this purpose the lessons are being tape-recorded. Students were administered an unannounced tailor-made pre-test and will be administered an unannounced tailor-made post-test, both consisting of written recognition and production of the targeted words. We will analyse three aspects: subjects’ total vocabulary gains as revealed by the comparison between the pre-test and post-test results; correlations between such gains and lexical frequency in textbooks and teachers’ talk in the classroom; correlations between the students’ gains and lexical frequency in textbooks on the one hand and the teacher’s talk in the classroom on the other. The findings obtained may be used for 1) the formulation of related hypotheses and the design of quasi-experimental studies and 2) the design of teaching materials.
References
Laufer, B. & Goldstein, Z. (2004). Testing Vocabulary Knowledge: Size, Strength, and Computer Adaptiveness. Language Learning, 54, 469-523
Laufer, B. & Rozovski-Roitblat, B. (2011). Incidental vocabulary acquisition: The effects of task type, word occurrence and their combination. Language Teaching Research, 15(4), 391-411.
Nation, I. S. P. & Wang, K. (1999). Graded readers and vocabulary. Reading in a Foreign
Language, 12, 355–380.
Waring, R. (2003). At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from reading a graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15(2), 130-163.
Webb, S. (2007). The effects of repetition in vocabulary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 28, 46-65.
Our goal addresses this issue by implementing an ongoing four-week experimental study with a repeated-measures design. The participants were 17 Spanish EFL undergraduate learners with a low-intermediate level (A2-B1). A list with the new words selected as such by the textbook was compiled for the units covered by the experimental period. The frequency of occurrence of such words was quantified in the textbook and is currently being computed in the teacher’s talk when implementing the activities in the classroom –both the actual number of times that the targeted words are repeated by her and the number of times that she prompts the students to repeat them (e.g. “repeat”, “once again”, etc.). For this purpose the lessons are being tape-recorded. Students were administered an unannounced tailor-made pre-test and will be administered an unannounced tailor-made post-test, both consisting of written recognition and production of the targeted words. We will analyse three aspects: subjects’ total vocabulary gains as revealed by the comparison between the pre-test and post-test results; correlations between such gains and lexical frequency in textbooks and teachers’ talk in the classroom; correlations between the students’ gains and lexical frequency in textbooks on the one hand and the teacher’s talk in the classroom on the other. The findings obtained may be used for 1) the formulation of related hypotheses and the design of quasi-experimental studies and 2) the design of teaching materials.
References
Laufer, B. & Goldstein, Z. (2004). Testing Vocabulary Knowledge: Size, Strength, and Computer Adaptiveness. Language Learning, 54, 469-523
Laufer, B. & Rozovski-Roitblat, B. (2011). Incidental vocabulary acquisition: The effects of task type, word occurrence and their combination. Language Teaching Research, 15(4), 391-411.
Nation, I. S. P. & Wang, K. (1999). Graded readers and vocabulary. Reading in a Foreign
Language, 12, 355–380.
Waring, R. (2003). At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from reading a graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15(2), 130-163.
Webb, S. (2007). The effects of repetition in vocabulary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 28, 46-65.
The amount of words a learner knows has often been taken as an indicator of her/his language proficiency. Laufer (2010: 26) states that “vocabulary may be the major factor in reading comprehension”. In this sense, corpora and the... more
The amount of words a learner knows has often been taken as an indicator of her/his language proficiency. Laufer (2010: 26) states that “vocabulary may be the major factor in reading comprehension”. In this sense, corpora and the frequency lists derived from them may be taken as highly useful sources for the selection and elaboration of language teaching materials. This potential was already perceived in the first part of the 20th century (Thorndike & Lorge 1944; West, 1953) and became evident in the second part of the same century, when electronic corpora increased facilities for the elaboration of more reliable frequency lists (Kucera & Francis, 1967).
Scholars usually emphasize the importance of the most frequent words because speakers need them for the most basic communicative situations (Laufer, 2010; Nation, 2001; Waring, 2003). Consequently, the most frequently occurring words should be learnt first. This is what textbook authors, at least since the seventies, have aimed at when deciding on the lexical component to be included in each one of the predefined linguistic levels, or when manipulating or reshaping the texts selected.
Besides, studies in SLA and cognition highlight the neural limitations in the acquisition of knowledge, heavily conditioned by the capacity of human working memory (Anderson, 2010; Schmidt, 1994, Ullman, 2004, among others). The rules governing language acquisition in the brain and information processing and consolidation in long-term memory do not allow for the quick and “easy” learning of all the lexical items theoretically needed for the development of each linguistic level. This paper addresses the issue of whether teaching materials have adapted or not, and to what extent, to a) authors’ current stance in connection to frequency lists and their use in vocabulary teaching; and b) current cognitive and SLA research showing students’ limitations for vocabulary learning and their real learning potential in specific time frames (Waring, 2003).
The research is based on the vocabulary analysis of an internationally- known ELT textbook series published by Oxford University Press: New English File (Elementary (2004), Pre-intermediate (2005), Intermediate (2006)), covering A1, A2 and B1 levels. Firstly, we compiled an ad hoc corpus with the words in the textbooks. Secondly, we quantified the vocabulary included in each one of them and compared it to the lexical expectations per level. Thirdly, we correlated the vocabulary of each textbook with the BNC-based frequency ranges (Nation, 2001). Finally, we analyzed the amount of lexical learning that students should attain as expected by textbook authors against the students’ real learning potential as uncovered by the research previously indicated.
Data obtained will supply us with a reliable picture on how each textbook from the series progressively adapts to the claims regarding linguistic levels, and whether they adjust to frequency lists derived from corpora studies and take into consideration the students’ cognitive potential as revealed by research in Cognitive Psychology. Pedagogical recommendations for materials design and adaptation and vocabulary teaching in general will be drawn as framed within the insights from Corpus Linguistics, SLA and Cognitive Psychology studies.
KEYWORDS: Foreign language teaching, frequency lists, corpus linguistics, vocabulary acquisition.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J. R. (2010), Cognitive Psychology and its Implications (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Kucera, H. & Francis, W. N. (1967), Computational Analysis of Present Day American English. Providence: Brown University Press.
Laufer, B. (2010), ‘Lexical threshold revisited: Lexical text coverage, learners’ vocabulary size and reading comprehension.’ Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1): 15-30.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001), Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxenden, C. & Latham-Koenig, C. (2004, 2005, 2006), New English File Elementary, Pre-intermediate, Intermediate Student’s Books. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schmidt, R. (1994), ‘Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammars and SLA’. In Ellis, N.C. (ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press. 165-209.
Thorndike, E.L. & Lorge, I. (1944), The Teacher's Word Book of 30,000 Words. Teachers College: Columbia University.
Ullman, M. T. (2004), ‘Contributions of Memory Circuits to Language: the Declarative / Procedural Model.’ Cognition 92: 231-270.
Waring, R. (2003), ‘At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from reading a graded reader?’ Reading in a Foreign Language 15(2): 130-163.
West, M. (1953), A General Service List of English Words. London: Longman: Green & Co.
Scholars usually emphasize the importance of the most frequent words because speakers need them for the most basic communicative situations (Laufer, 2010; Nation, 2001; Waring, 2003). Consequently, the most frequently occurring words should be learnt first. This is what textbook authors, at least since the seventies, have aimed at when deciding on the lexical component to be included in each one of the predefined linguistic levels, or when manipulating or reshaping the texts selected.
Besides, studies in SLA and cognition highlight the neural limitations in the acquisition of knowledge, heavily conditioned by the capacity of human working memory (Anderson, 2010; Schmidt, 1994, Ullman, 2004, among others). The rules governing language acquisition in the brain and information processing and consolidation in long-term memory do not allow for the quick and “easy” learning of all the lexical items theoretically needed for the development of each linguistic level. This paper addresses the issue of whether teaching materials have adapted or not, and to what extent, to a) authors’ current stance in connection to frequency lists and their use in vocabulary teaching; and b) current cognitive and SLA research showing students’ limitations for vocabulary learning and their real learning potential in specific time frames (Waring, 2003).
The research is based on the vocabulary analysis of an internationally- known ELT textbook series published by Oxford University Press: New English File (Elementary (2004), Pre-intermediate (2005), Intermediate (2006)), covering A1, A2 and B1 levels. Firstly, we compiled an ad hoc corpus with the words in the textbooks. Secondly, we quantified the vocabulary included in each one of them and compared it to the lexical expectations per level. Thirdly, we correlated the vocabulary of each textbook with the BNC-based frequency ranges (Nation, 2001). Finally, we analyzed the amount of lexical learning that students should attain as expected by textbook authors against the students’ real learning potential as uncovered by the research previously indicated.
Data obtained will supply us with a reliable picture on how each textbook from the series progressively adapts to the claims regarding linguistic levels, and whether they adjust to frequency lists derived from corpora studies and take into consideration the students’ cognitive potential as revealed by research in Cognitive Psychology. Pedagogical recommendations for materials design and adaptation and vocabulary teaching in general will be drawn as framed within the insights from Corpus Linguistics, SLA and Cognitive Psychology studies.
KEYWORDS: Foreign language teaching, frequency lists, corpus linguistics, vocabulary acquisition.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J. R. (2010), Cognitive Psychology and its Implications (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Kucera, H. & Francis, W. N. (1967), Computational Analysis of Present Day American English. Providence: Brown University Press.
Laufer, B. (2010), ‘Lexical threshold revisited: Lexical text coverage, learners’ vocabulary size and reading comprehension.’ Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1): 15-30.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001), Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxenden, C. & Latham-Koenig, C. (2004, 2005, 2006), New English File Elementary, Pre-intermediate, Intermediate Student’s Books. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schmidt, R. (1994), ‘Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammars and SLA’. In Ellis, N.C. (ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press. 165-209.
Thorndike, E.L. & Lorge, I. (1944), The Teacher's Word Book of 30,000 Words. Teachers College: Columbia University.
Ullman, M. T. (2004), ‘Contributions of Memory Circuits to Language: the Declarative / Procedural Model.’ Cognition 92: 231-270.
Waring, R. (2003), ‘At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from reading a graded reader?’ Reading in a Foreign Language 15(2): 130-163.
West, M. (1953), A General Service List of English Words. London: Longman: Green & Co.
Recent studies within Cognitive Psychology, Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics (see DeKeyser, 2009, for a review) are enriching our knowledge about Second Language Acquisition (SLA). However, their insights have not been significantly... more
Recent studies within Cognitive Psychology, Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics (see DeKeyser, 2009, for a review) are enriching our knowledge about Second Language Acquisition (SLA). However, their insights have not been significantly applied to Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) (Cook, 2008). This constitutes a rather undesirable situation in this field, both from “meta”-research and practical perspectives. Given that the goal of FLT research is targeted at devising and testing effective teaching practices, it follows that an understanding of how languages are learned and of the neurological and cognitive processes implied should lead to more rigorous FLT research and more solid instructional techniques.
This paper is intended to cater for this imperative need in FLT. I will propose a systematic framework for the elaboration of adult FLT materials based on the “skill acquisition” theory as applied to SLA. The reasons for focusing on this theory are two-fold: firstly, according to DeKeyser (2007a), this theory is not competing with other well-known SLA theories (VanPatten’s Input Processing (VanPatten, 2004, 2007) and N. C. Ellis’ Associative-Cognitive Creed (2007)); secondly, it has also been widely applied in SLA, both in descriptive/analytical studies (DeKeyser, 1998, 2007a, 2007b, 2010; O’Malley et al., 1987) and empirical studies contributing behavioural data (De Jong, 2005; DeKeyser, 1995, 1997; DeKeyser & Sokalski, 1996; Ureel, 2010). FLT research has also drawn on skill acquisition theory (Alonso-Aparicio, 2011; Criado, 2009, 2010; Criado & Sánchez, 2009; Johnson, 1994, 1996). However, none of these works is specifically targeted at elaborating a framework such as that to be presented here. Alonso-Aparicio’s study focuses on the effects of systematic practice in instructed SLA, whereas Criado’s, Sánchez’s and Johnson’s works are considerably expanded with the present proposal for a systematized, comprehensive framework.
Succinctly, skill acquisition theory, whose major supporter is the cognitive psychologist J. R. Anderson (Anderson, 2010; Anderson & Fincham, 1994; Anderson et al., 2004; Anderson et al., 2008; Taatgen & Anderson, 2008), is based on: 1) the distinction among three types of knowledge – declarative, procedural and automatized – to be developed in three succeeding stages (declarative, procedural and automatic); 2) the cognitive sequence DEC>PRO, reflecting the conducive role of declarative knowledge in the attainment of procedural knowledge, which is later automatized.
The pedagogical implementation of skill acquisition theory in FLT will affect two essential intertwined aspects: 1) activity sequencing, which should comply with cognitive sequencing in terms of the purpose and order of implementation of the stages for DEC>PRO; 2) the nature of the activities needed to foster the development of each one of the cognitive phases. This implementation will be illustrated with examples from published and non-published English Language Teaching (ELT) materials.
It is hoped that the resulting framework is useful for FLT researchers and professionals to help them adopt general principled decisions which do not result in a hindrance but contribute to a facilitative role of instruction for language acquisition.
Keywords: Skill Acquisition theory, Cognitive Psychology, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, Second Language Acquisition, Foreign Language Teaching
REFERENCES
Alonso-Aparicio, I. 2011. “Posibilidades de la práctica sistemática en el tratamiento didáctico de aspectos formales en la enseñanza de idiomas. Estudio sobre sus efectos en el aprendizaje de la distinción modal en español como lengua extranjera”. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Granada, Spain.
Anderson, J. R. 2010. Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishing.
Anderson, J. R., Bothell, D., Byrne, M. D., Douglass, S., Lebiere, C. & Qin, Y. 2004. “An Integrated Theory of the Mind”, Psychological Review, 111: 1036-1060.
Anderson, J. R., Carter, C. S., Fincham, J. M., Qin,. Y., Ravizza, S. M., & Rosenberg-Lee, M. 2008. “Using fMRI to Test Models of Complex Cognition”, Cognitive Science, 32: 1323-1348.
Anderson, J. R., & Fincham, J. M. 1994. “Acquisition of procedural skills from examples”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20(6): 1322-1340.
Cook, V. 2008. Second Language Learning and Teaching. (4th ed.). London: Hodder Education.
Criado, R. 2009. “Teaching methods and their conceptualisation from a cognitive perspective of knowledge acquisition”, Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 59: 101-116.
Criado, R. 2010. Activity Sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching Textbooks. A Cognitive and Communicative Processes-Based Perspective. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Criado, R. & Sánchez, A. 2009. “The Universal Character of the DEC−>PRO Cognitive Sequence in Language Learning and Teaching Materials”, Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada (RESLA), 22: 89-106.
De Jong, N. 2005. “Can second language grammar be learned through listening? An experimental study”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2): 205–34.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1995. “Learning second language grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature linguistic system”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17: 379-410.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1997. “Beyond Explicit Rule Learning: Automatizing Second Language Morphosyntax”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(2): 195-221.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007a. Skill acquisition theory. Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 97-114.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007b. Introduction: Situating the concept of practice. Practice in a Second Language. Perspectives from Applied Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology. Ed. R. M. DeKeyser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1-18.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2009. Cognitive-psychological processes in second language learning. Handbook of Second Language Teaching. Eds. M. Long & C. Doughty. Oxford: Blackwell. 119-138.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2010. “Practice for Second Language Learning: Don’t Throw out the Baby with the Bathwater”, International Journal of English Studies (IJES), 10(1): 155-165.
DeKeyser, R. M., & Sokalski, K. J., 1996. “The differential role of comprehension and production practice”, Language Learning, 46(4): 613-642.
Ellis, N.C. 2007. The Associative-Cognitive CREED. Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 76-96
Johnson, K. 1994. Teaching Declarative and Procedural Knowledge. Grammar and the Language Teacher. Eds. M. Bygate, A. Tonkin & E. Williams. London: Prentice Hall. 121-131.
Johnson, K. 1996. Language Teaching and Skill Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.
O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U. & Walker, C. 1987. “Some applications of cognitive theory to second language acquisition”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9: 287-306.
Taatgen, N.A. & Anderson, J.R. 2008. ACT-R. Constraints in Cognitive Architectures. Ed. R. Sun. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 170-185.
Ureel, J. 2010. Form-Focused Instruction and the Acquisition of Tense by Dutch-Speaking Learners of English. Experimental Studies into the Effects of Input Practice and Output Practice. Doctoral dissertation. University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
VanPatten, B. Ed. 2004. Processing Instruction. Theory, research, and commentary. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
VanPatten, B. 2007. Input processing in adult second language acquisition. Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 115-135.
This paper is intended to cater for this imperative need in FLT. I will propose a systematic framework for the elaboration of adult FLT materials based on the “skill acquisition” theory as applied to SLA. The reasons for focusing on this theory are two-fold: firstly, according to DeKeyser (2007a), this theory is not competing with other well-known SLA theories (VanPatten’s Input Processing (VanPatten, 2004, 2007) and N. C. Ellis’ Associative-Cognitive Creed (2007)); secondly, it has also been widely applied in SLA, both in descriptive/analytical studies (DeKeyser, 1998, 2007a, 2007b, 2010; O’Malley et al., 1987) and empirical studies contributing behavioural data (De Jong, 2005; DeKeyser, 1995, 1997; DeKeyser & Sokalski, 1996; Ureel, 2010). FLT research has also drawn on skill acquisition theory (Alonso-Aparicio, 2011; Criado, 2009, 2010; Criado & Sánchez, 2009; Johnson, 1994, 1996). However, none of these works is specifically targeted at elaborating a framework such as that to be presented here. Alonso-Aparicio’s study focuses on the effects of systematic practice in instructed SLA, whereas Criado’s, Sánchez’s and Johnson’s works are considerably expanded with the present proposal for a systematized, comprehensive framework.
Succinctly, skill acquisition theory, whose major supporter is the cognitive psychologist J. R. Anderson (Anderson, 2010; Anderson & Fincham, 1994; Anderson et al., 2004; Anderson et al., 2008; Taatgen & Anderson, 2008), is based on: 1) the distinction among three types of knowledge – declarative, procedural and automatized – to be developed in three succeeding stages (declarative, procedural and automatic); 2) the cognitive sequence DEC>PRO, reflecting the conducive role of declarative knowledge in the attainment of procedural knowledge, which is later automatized.
The pedagogical implementation of skill acquisition theory in FLT will affect two essential intertwined aspects: 1) activity sequencing, which should comply with cognitive sequencing in terms of the purpose and order of implementation of the stages for DEC>PRO; 2) the nature of the activities needed to foster the development of each one of the cognitive phases. This implementation will be illustrated with examples from published and non-published English Language Teaching (ELT) materials.
It is hoped that the resulting framework is useful for FLT researchers and professionals to help them adopt general principled decisions which do not result in a hindrance but contribute to a facilitative role of instruction for language acquisition.
Keywords: Skill Acquisition theory, Cognitive Psychology, declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, Second Language Acquisition, Foreign Language Teaching
REFERENCES
Alonso-Aparicio, I. 2011. “Posibilidades de la práctica sistemática en el tratamiento didáctico de aspectos formales en la enseñanza de idiomas. Estudio sobre sus efectos en el aprendizaje de la distinción modal en español como lengua extranjera”. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Granada, Spain.
Anderson, J. R. 2010. Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishing.
Anderson, J. R., Bothell, D., Byrne, M. D., Douglass, S., Lebiere, C. & Qin, Y. 2004. “An Integrated Theory of the Mind”, Psychological Review, 111: 1036-1060.
Anderson, J. R., Carter, C. S., Fincham, J. M., Qin,. Y., Ravizza, S. M., & Rosenberg-Lee, M. 2008. “Using fMRI to Test Models of Complex Cognition”, Cognitive Science, 32: 1323-1348.
Anderson, J. R., & Fincham, J. M. 1994. “Acquisition of procedural skills from examples”. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20(6): 1322-1340.
Cook, V. 2008. Second Language Learning and Teaching. (4th ed.). London: Hodder Education.
Criado, R. 2009. “Teaching methods and their conceptualisation from a cognitive perspective of knowledge acquisition”, Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 59: 101-116.
Criado, R. 2010. Activity Sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching Textbooks. A Cognitive and Communicative Processes-Based Perspective. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Criado, R. & Sánchez, A. 2009. “The Universal Character of the DEC−>PRO Cognitive Sequence in Language Learning and Teaching Materials”, Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada (RESLA), 22: 89-106.
De Jong, N. 2005. “Can second language grammar be learned through listening? An experimental study”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2): 205–34.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1995. “Learning second language grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature linguistic system”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17: 379-410.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1997. “Beyond Explicit Rule Learning: Automatizing Second Language Morphosyntax”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(2): 195-221.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007a. Skill acquisition theory. Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 97-114.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007b. Introduction: Situating the concept of practice. Practice in a Second Language. Perspectives from Applied Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology. Ed. R. M. DeKeyser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1-18.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2009. Cognitive-psychological processes in second language learning. Handbook of Second Language Teaching. Eds. M. Long & C. Doughty. Oxford: Blackwell. 119-138.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2010. “Practice for Second Language Learning: Don’t Throw out the Baby with the Bathwater”, International Journal of English Studies (IJES), 10(1): 155-165.
DeKeyser, R. M., & Sokalski, K. J., 1996. “The differential role of comprehension and production practice”, Language Learning, 46(4): 613-642.
Ellis, N.C. 2007. The Associative-Cognitive CREED. Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 76-96
Johnson, K. 1994. Teaching Declarative and Procedural Knowledge. Grammar and the Language Teacher. Eds. M. Bygate, A. Tonkin & E. Williams. London: Prentice Hall. 121-131.
Johnson, K. 1996. Language Teaching and Skill Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.
O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U. & Walker, C. 1987. “Some applications of cognitive theory to second language acquisition”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9: 287-306.
Taatgen, N.A. & Anderson, J.R. 2008. ACT-R. Constraints in Cognitive Architectures. Ed. R. Sun. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 170-185.
Ureel, J. 2010. Form-Focused Instruction and the Acquisition of Tense by Dutch-Speaking Learners of English. Experimental Studies into the Effects of Input Practice and Output Practice. Doctoral dissertation. University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
VanPatten, B. Ed. 2004. Processing Instruction. Theory, research, and commentary. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
VanPatten, B. 2007. Input processing in adult second language acquisition. Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 115-135.
Textbooks and teacher’s actions are the two main pedagogical agents in the English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom. Accordingly, in order to enhance the students’ effective learning, such pedagogical agents should respect as much as... more
Textbooks and teacher’s actions are the two main pedagogical agents in the English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom. Accordingly, in order to enhance the students’ effective learning, such pedagogical agents should respect as much as possible the cognitive parameters of knowledge acquisition as revealed by the contemporary plethora of SLA studies rooted in Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics (DeKeyser, 1995, 1997; Ellis, N., 1994, 2005, 2007; Ellis, R., 2005, 2006, 2009; Gasparini, 2004; Hulstijn, 2005; Paradis, 1994, 2009; Sanz & Morgan-Short, 2005; Schmidt, 1990, 1994, 2001; Ullman, 2004, etc.).
In this study we will analyse the pedagogical action of a specific teacher in a class from the first year of Bachillerato within Spanish Secondary Education and the unit from the textbook on which it is theoretically based, Steps to Success 1 (2010. Oxford University Press). Our analysis will be circumscribed to two cognitive factors of paramount importance in language learning: a) the nature of the activities regarding their explicit and/or implicit nature, and b) the sequence of those activities in the unit. The role and relevance of explicit and implicit learning in the acquisition of explicit and implicit knowledge is one of the hottest current issues in SLA. This is known as the “interface issue”, with three main positions: strong (DeKeyser, 1998, 2007a, 2007 and elsewhere), weak (N. C. Ellis, 2005, 2007; R. Ellis, 1993) and no-interface (Hulstijn, 2002; Krashen, 1981, 1982; Paradis, 2009). Our stance, supported by common experience and behavioural data obtained from empirical studies (e.g. DeKeyser, 1995, 1997; De Jong, 2005; Ureel, 2010) is that explicit instruction does play a role in the attainment of effective communicative proficiency. As to sequencing, several studies have highlighted the need for pedagogical sequence to reflect the cognitive sequence of the processes involved in knowledge acquisition (Criado, 2010; Criado & Sánchez, 2009; 2010; DeKeyser, 1998, 2007a; Johnson, 1996).
Our objectives are two-fold. Firstly, we will analyse the individual activities as presented by the teacher and as found in the textbook in order to detect their explicit and implicit potential; the load of explicitness and implicitness will be measured by the tool designed by Criado et al. (2010). Secondly, we will compare the teaching sequencing in both agents –the development of the classroom action operationalized as a series of interconnected activities and the ordering of the activities within the textbook unit– and we will map the resulting sequences onto the cognitive sequence(s) activated by the human mind according to the research previously mentioned.
The results will offer useful information on whether the teacher’s action and the related textbook unit do promote and, to what extent, explicit and implicit knowledge and the right cognitive route in the attainment of language knowledge. Ideally, a high degree of agreement between both pedagogical agents with the findings from SLA research is to be expected. A mismatch will endanger effective learning and will demand a thorough pedagogical revision to guarantee the timely activation of the correct cognitive processes and types of knowledge.
KEYWORDS: ELT, teacher, textbook, explicit and implicit knowledge, sequencing, SLA
REFERENCES
Criado, R. & Sánchez, A. 2009. Cognitive Patterns in the Acquisition of Knowledge and the Sequencing of Activities in the Organization of Teaching. New Perspectives on English Studies. Eds. M. Amengual, M. Juan & J. Salazar. Palma de Mallorca: Edicions UIB. 285-294.
Criado, R. 2010. Activity Sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching Textbooks. A Cognitive and Communicative Processes-Based Perspective. Saarbrücken, Germany: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing.
Criado, R., Sánchez, A. & Cantos, P. 2010. “An attempt to elaborate a construct to measure the degree of explicitness and implicitness in ELT materials”, International Journal of English Studies (IJES), 10(1): 103-129.
Criado Sánchez, R. & Sánchez, A. 2010. Cognitive processes and the P-P-P (Presentation-Practice-Production model) in contemporary ELT materials. Analysing Data, Describing Variation. Eds. J. L. Bueno Alonso, D. González Álvarez, U. Kirsten Torrado, A. E. Martínez Insua, J. Pérez Guerra, E. Rama Martínez & R. Rodríguez Vázquez. Vigo: Universidade de Vigo (Servizo de Publicacións). 227-243.
De Jong, N. 2005. “Can second language grammar be learned through listening? An experimental study”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2): 205–34.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1995. “Learning second language grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature linguistic system”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17: 379-410.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1997. “Beyond Explicit Rule Learning: Automatizing Second Language Morphosyntax”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(2): 195-221.
DeKeyser, R.M. 1998. Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspectives on learning and practicing second language grammar. Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Eds. C. Doughty & J. Williams. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 42-63.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007a. Introduction: Situating the concept of practice. Practice in a Second Language. Perspectives from Applied Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology. Ed. R. M. DeKeyser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1-18.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007b. Skill acquisition theory. Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 97-114.
Ellis, N. C. 1994. Introduction: Implicit and explicit language learning. An overview. Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. Ed. N. C. Ellis. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 1-31.
Ellis, N. C. 2005. “At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 305-352.
Ellis, N. C. 2007. The Associative-Cognitive CREED. Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 76-96
Ellis, R. 1993. “Second language acquisition and the structural syllabus”, TESOL Quarterly, 27, 91-113.
Ellis, R. 2005. “Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language. A psychometric study”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27: 141-172.
Ellis, R. 2006. “Modeling learning difficulty and second language proficiency: The differential contributions of implicit and explicit knowledge”, Applied Linguistics, 27(3): 431-463.
Ellis, R. 2009. Implicit and explicit learning, knowledge and instruction. Implicit and Explicit Knowledge in Second Language Learning, Testing and Teaching. Eds. R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp & H. Reindeers. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. 1-26.
Gasparini, S. 2004. “Implicit versus explicit learning: Some implications for L2 teaching”, European Journal of Psychology of Education, 19(2): 203-219.
Hulstijn, J. H. 2002. “Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge”, Second Language Research, 18: 193-223.
Hulstijn, J. H. 2005. “Theoretical and empirical issues in the study of implicit and explicit second language learning: Introduction”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2): 129-140.
Johnson, K. 1996. Language Teaching and Skill Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.
Krashen, S. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford, England: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D. 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language Learning. London: Pergamon Press Ltd.
Paradis, M. 1994. Neurolinguistic aspects of explicit and implicit memory: implications for bilingualism in SLA. Implicit and explicit learning of languages. Ed. N. C. Ellis. London: Academic Press. 393-418.
Paradis, M. 2009. Declarative and Procedural Determinants of Second Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Sanz, C. & Morgan-Short, K. 2005. Explicitness in pedagogical interventions: Input, practice, and feedback. Mind & Context in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Methods, Theory and Practice. Ed. C. Sanz. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. 234-263.
Schmidt, R. W. 1990. “Consciousness in second language learning”, Applied Linguistics, 11(2): 129-158.
Schmidt, R. 1994. Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammars and SLA. Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. Ed. N. C. Ellis. London: Academic Press. 165-209.
Schmidt, R. 2001. Attention. Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Ed. P. Robinson. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 3-32.
Ullman, M.T. 2004. “Contributions of Memory Circuits to Language: the Declarative / Procedural Model”, Cognition, 92: 231-270.
Ureel, J. 2010. Form-Focused Instruction and the Acquisition of Tense by Dutch-Speaking Learners of English. Experimental Studies into the Effects of Input Practice and Output Practice. Doctoral dissertation. University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
In this study we will analyse the pedagogical action of a specific teacher in a class from the first year of Bachillerato within Spanish Secondary Education and the unit from the textbook on which it is theoretically based, Steps to Success 1 (2010. Oxford University Press). Our analysis will be circumscribed to two cognitive factors of paramount importance in language learning: a) the nature of the activities regarding their explicit and/or implicit nature, and b) the sequence of those activities in the unit. The role and relevance of explicit and implicit learning in the acquisition of explicit and implicit knowledge is one of the hottest current issues in SLA. This is known as the “interface issue”, with three main positions: strong (DeKeyser, 1998, 2007a, 2007 and elsewhere), weak (N. C. Ellis, 2005, 2007; R. Ellis, 1993) and no-interface (Hulstijn, 2002; Krashen, 1981, 1982; Paradis, 2009). Our stance, supported by common experience and behavioural data obtained from empirical studies (e.g. DeKeyser, 1995, 1997; De Jong, 2005; Ureel, 2010) is that explicit instruction does play a role in the attainment of effective communicative proficiency. As to sequencing, several studies have highlighted the need for pedagogical sequence to reflect the cognitive sequence of the processes involved in knowledge acquisition (Criado, 2010; Criado & Sánchez, 2009; 2010; DeKeyser, 1998, 2007a; Johnson, 1996).
Our objectives are two-fold. Firstly, we will analyse the individual activities as presented by the teacher and as found in the textbook in order to detect their explicit and implicit potential; the load of explicitness and implicitness will be measured by the tool designed by Criado et al. (2010). Secondly, we will compare the teaching sequencing in both agents –the development of the classroom action operationalized as a series of interconnected activities and the ordering of the activities within the textbook unit– and we will map the resulting sequences onto the cognitive sequence(s) activated by the human mind according to the research previously mentioned.
The results will offer useful information on whether the teacher’s action and the related textbook unit do promote and, to what extent, explicit and implicit knowledge and the right cognitive route in the attainment of language knowledge. Ideally, a high degree of agreement between both pedagogical agents with the findings from SLA research is to be expected. A mismatch will endanger effective learning and will demand a thorough pedagogical revision to guarantee the timely activation of the correct cognitive processes and types of knowledge.
KEYWORDS: ELT, teacher, textbook, explicit and implicit knowledge, sequencing, SLA
REFERENCES
Criado, R. & Sánchez, A. 2009. Cognitive Patterns in the Acquisition of Knowledge and the Sequencing of Activities in the Organization of Teaching. New Perspectives on English Studies. Eds. M. Amengual, M. Juan & J. Salazar. Palma de Mallorca: Edicions UIB. 285-294.
Criado, R. 2010. Activity Sequencing in Foreign Language Teaching Textbooks. A Cognitive and Communicative Processes-Based Perspective. Saarbrücken, Germany: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing.
Criado, R., Sánchez, A. & Cantos, P. 2010. “An attempt to elaborate a construct to measure the degree of explicitness and implicitness in ELT materials”, International Journal of English Studies (IJES), 10(1): 103-129.
Criado Sánchez, R. & Sánchez, A. 2010. Cognitive processes and the P-P-P (Presentation-Practice-Production model) in contemporary ELT materials. Analysing Data, Describing Variation. Eds. J. L. Bueno Alonso, D. González Álvarez, U. Kirsten Torrado, A. E. Martínez Insua, J. Pérez Guerra, E. Rama Martínez & R. Rodríguez Vázquez. Vigo: Universidade de Vigo (Servizo de Publicacións). 227-243.
De Jong, N. 2005. “Can second language grammar be learned through listening? An experimental study”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2): 205–34.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1995. “Learning second language grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature linguistic system”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17: 379-410.
DeKeyser, R. M. 1997. “Beyond Explicit Rule Learning: Automatizing Second Language Morphosyntax”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(2): 195-221.
DeKeyser, R.M. 1998. Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspectives on learning and practicing second language grammar. Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Eds. C. Doughty & J. Williams. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 42-63.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007a. Introduction: Situating the concept of practice. Practice in a Second Language. Perspectives from Applied Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology. Ed. R. M. DeKeyser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1-18.
DeKeyser, R. M. 2007b. Skill acquisition theory. Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 97-114.
Ellis, N. C. 1994. Introduction: Implicit and explicit language learning. An overview. Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. Ed. N. C. Ellis. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 1-31.
Ellis, N. C. 2005. “At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2), 305-352.
Ellis, N. C. 2007. The Associative-Cognitive CREED. Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An Introduction. Eds. B. VanPatten & J. Williams. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 76-96
Ellis, R. 1993. “Second language acquisition and the structural syllabus”, TESOL Quarterly, 27, 91-113.
Ellis, R. 2005. “Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language. A psychometric study”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27: 141-172.
Ellis, R. 2006. “Modeling learning difficulty and second language proficiency: The differential contributions of implicit and explicit knowledge”, Applied Linguistics, 27(3): 431-463.
Ellis, R. 2009. Implicit and explicit learning, knowledge and instruction. Implicit and Explicit Knowledge in Second Language Learning, Testing and Teaching. Eds. R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp & H. Reindeers. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. 1-26.
Gasparini, S. 2004. “Implicit versus explicit learning: Some implications for L2 teaching”, European Journal of Psychology of Education, 19(2): 203-219.
Hulstijn, J. H. 2002. “Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge”, Second Language Research, 18: 193-223.
Hulstijn, J. H. 2005. “Theoretical and empirical issues in the study of implicit and explicit second language learning: Introduction”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(2): 129-140.
Johnson, K. 1996. Language Teaching and Skill Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.
Krashen, S. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford, England: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D. 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language Learning. London: Pergamon Press Ltd.
Paradis, M. 1994. Neurolinguistic aspects of explicit and implicit memory: implications for bilingualism in SLA. Implicit and explicit learning of languages. Ed. N. C. Ellis. London: Academic Press. 393-418.
Paradis, M. 2009. Declarative and Procedural Determinants of Second Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Sanz, C. & Morgan-Short, K. 2005. Explicitness in pedagogical interventions: Input, practice, and feedback. Mind & Context in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Methods, Theory and Practice. Ed. C. Sanz. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. 234-263.
Schmidt, R. W. 1990. “Consciousness in second language learning”, Applied Linguistics, 11(2): 129-158.
Schmidt, R. 1994. Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammars and SLA. Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. Ed. N. C. Ellis. London: Academic Press. 165-209.
Schmidt, R. 2001. Attention. Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Ed. P. Robinson. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 3-32.
Ullman, M.T. 2004. “Contributions of Memory Circuits to Language: the Declarative / Procedural Model”, Cognition, 92: 231-270.
Ureel, J. 2010. Form-Focused Instruction and the Acquisition of Tense by Dutch-Speaking Learners of English. Experimental Studies into the Effects of Input Practice and Output Practice. Doctoral dissertation. University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Together with grammar, vocabulary (Laufer & Nation, 2001; Nation, 2001; West, 1926, 1953) is one of the key components of the linguistic system. In the last twenty-five years or so, attention on vocabulary learning has gained momentum... more
Together with grammar, vocabulary (Laufer & Nation, 2001; Nation, 2001; West, 1926, 1953) is one of the key components of the linguistic system. In the last twenty-five years or so, attention on vocabulary learning has gained momentum (Laufer, 1989, 1997, 2005; Meara, 2009; Nation, 2001, 2006; Sinclair & Renouf, 1988; Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997; Schmitt, 2000, 2008).
We consider that information on the words included in textbooks is of great help for course book designers, course book writers, Foreign Language Teaching teachers and researchers. The era of the digital word as well as corpus linguistics studies and techniques are proving decisive in analysing textbooks and other teaching materials. Computers can read one or more textbooks in seconds and offer well-structured and classified information on the formal elements they contain (words, words and their co-text, words in patterns). Computational data are not only quantitative, but real and reliable. Accordingly, this paper is firstly framed within research on language teaching materials and vocabulary from a quantitative perspective; besides, such a quantitative perspective is enriched afterwards with a qualitative analysis to offer a more complete discussion.
Specifically, we will analyse the lexical component in three English Language Teaching textbooks published in the late 1960s, the 1980s and the first decade of the 21st century: First Things First (1967), by Alexander; Cambridge English Course (1982), by Swan & Walter, and New English File Elementary (2004), by Oxenden, Latham-Koenig and Seligson. All of them are targeted at an elementary level and may be taken as reasonably representative materials of the following methods respectively: (i) the British version of the Structural-based Methods, the Situational Method, (ii) the initial implementation of the Communicative Method, and (iii) the late implementation of the Communicative Method.
Consequently, with the help of computational tools, a vocabulary analysis will be performed with respect to the following areas: (i) amount of words included; (ii) distribution of tokens and types per textbook unit, (iii) differences regarding the types included when compared to the 1000 most frequent words of English; (iv) main topics of each course book as covered by the specific words included.
The analysis will reveal 1) how textbooks, and the methods they are associated to, have evolved since the late 1960s in the presentation and arrangement of the lexical component; 2) the effects of each method on vocabulary selection; 3) the influence on vocabulary selection of cultural issues prevailing at the time when such textbooks were written (Byram et al., 1994; Kramsch, 1998, 2001).
References
Alexander, L. G. (1967). First Things First. London: Longman.
Byram, M., Morgan, M. & Colleagues. (1994). Teaching-and-Learning Language-and-Culture. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kramsch, C. J. (2001). Intercultural Communication. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (pp. 201-206). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laufer, B. (1989). What percentage of text lexis is essential for comprehension? In C. Lauren & M. Nordman (Eds.), Special Language: From Human Thinking to Thinking Machines (pp. 316–323). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know, words you think you know, words you can’t guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition (pp. 20–34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laufer, B. (2005). Instructed second language vocabulary learning: the fault in the "default hypothesis". In A. Housen & M Pierrard (Eds.), Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition (pp. 286-303). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Laufer, B. & Nation P. (2001). Passive vocabulary size and the speed of meaning recognition: are they related? Eurosla Yearbook 1(2001), 7-28.
Meara, P. M. (2009). Connected Words: Word Associations and Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I.S.P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? The Canadian Modern Language Review, 63, 59–82.
Oxenden, C., Latham-Koenig, C. & Seligson, P. (2004). New English File ElementaryStudent’s Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Richards J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N. (2008). Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12, 329–63.
Sinclair, J.M. & Renouf, A. (1988). A lexical syllabus for language learning. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and Language Teaching (pp. 140–60). London: Longman.
Swan, M. & Walter, C. (1982). Cambridge English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
West, M. (1926). Learning to Read a Foreign Language. London: Longman, Green & Co.
West, M. (1953). A General Service List of English Words. London: Longman, Green, & Co.
We consider that information on the words included in textbooks is of great help for course book designers, course book writers, Foreign Language Teaching teachers and researchers. The era of the digital word as well as corpus linguistics studies and techniques are proving decisive in analysing textbooks and other teaching materials. Computers can read one or more textbooks in seconds and offer well-structured and classified information on the formal elements they contain (words, words and their co-text, words in patterns). Computational data are not only quantitative, but real and reliable. Accordingly, this paper is firstly framed within research on language teaching materials and vocabulary from a quantitative perspective; besides, such a quantitative perspective is enriched afterwards with a qualitative analysis to offer a more complete discussion.
Specifically, we will analyse the lexical component in three English Language Teaching textbooks published in the late 1960s, the 1980s and the first decade of the 21st century: First Things First (1967), by Alexander; Cambridge English Course (1982), by Swan & Walter, and New English File Elementary (2004), by Oxenden, Latham-Koenig and Seligson. All of them are targeted at an elementary level and may be taken as reasonably representative materials of the following methods respectively: (i) the British version of the Structural-based Methods, the Situational Method, (ii) the initial implementation of the Communicative Method, and (iii) the late implementation of the Communicative Method.
Consequently, with the help of computational tools, a vocabulary analysis will be performed with respect to the following areas: (i) amount of words included; (ii) distribution of tokens and types per textbook unit, (iii) differences regarding the types included when compared to the 1000 most frequent words of English; (iv) main topics of each course book as covered by the specific words included.
The analysis will reveal 1) how textbooks, and the methods they are associated to, have evolved since the late 1960s in the presentation and arrangement of the lexical component; 2) the effects of each method on vocabulary selection; 3) the influence on vocabulary selection of cultural issues prevailing at the time when such textbooks were written (Byram et al., 1994; Kramsch, 1998, 2001).
References
Alexander, L. G. (1967). First Things First. London: Longman.
Byram, M., Morgan, M. & Colleagues. (1994). Teaching-and-Learning Language-and-Culture. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kramsch, C. J. (2001). Intercultural Communication. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (pp. 201-206). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laufer, B. (1989). What percentage of text lexis is essential for comprehension? In C. Lauren & M. Nordman (Eds.), Special Language: From Human Thinking to Thinking Machines (pp. 316–323). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know, words you think you know, words you can’t guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition (pp. 20–34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laufer, B. (2005). Instructed second language vocabulary learning: the fault in the "default hypothesis". In A. Housen & M Pierrard (Eds.), Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition (pp. 286-303). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Laufer, B. & Nation P. (2001). Passive vocabulary size and the speed of meaning recognition: are they related? Eurosla Yearbook 1(2001), 7-28.
Meara, P. M. (2009). Connected Words: Word Associations and Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I.S.P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? The Canadian Modern Language Review, 63, 59–82.
Oxenden, C., Latham-Koenig, C. & Seligson, P. (2004). New English File ElementaryStudent’s Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Richards J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N. (2008). Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12, 329–63.
Sinclair, J.M. & Renouf, A. (1988). A lexical syllabus for language learning. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and Language Teaching (pp. 140–60). London: Longman.
Swan, M. & Walter, C. (1982). Cambridge English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
West, M. (1926). Learning to Read a Foreign Language. London: Longman, Green & Co.
West, M. (1953). A General Service List of English Words. London: Longman, Green, & Co.