DOI
10.22550/REP81-3-2023-02
Abstract
Learning to learn (LtL) is a key competence that the European Commission has identified for education systems (Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for life-long learning and Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning). It is usually assumed that students will already handle it well when they start university and that their use of it will improve during their university studies, but this assumption needs testing. The aim of this article is to establish the level of management of this competence as well as possible profiles of how university students use it and their relationship to academic achievement. To this end, we worked with a sample of 1,234 students from three universities in Valencia (Spain) in different study years and study areas, applying the QELtLCUS questionnaire, which evaluates the competence. We performed descriptive analyses, cluster analysis, analyses of differences, and multiple linear regression analyses. The sample subjects displayed an acceptable level of management, albeit with low scores in some important dimensions of LtL. We found two groups with two management profiles: one with a high competence level and another with a lower competence level. The students in the first group had better scores than those in the second group, with statistically significant results. We also found differences that were not statistically significant by gender, with a hig er level of competence in women, with those relating to year and study area being larger. We believe that this research provides relevant data that may be of interest to researchers. It also includes guidance to help teachers work on this competence in university studies.
Please, cite this article as follows: Gargallo-López, B., Almerich-Cerveró, G., García-García, F. J., López-Francés, I., & Sahuquillo-Mateo, P. M.ª (2023). Perfiles de estudiantes universitarios en la competencia aprender a aprender y su relación con el rendimiento académico [University student profiles in the learning to learn competence and their relationship with academic achievement]. Revista Española de Pedagogía, 81 (286), 457-487. 10.22550/REP81-3-2023-02
Referencias | References
Abad, F., Olea, J., Ponsoda, J. V., & García, C. (2011). Medición en ciencias sociales y de la salud [Measuring in social and health sciences]. Síntesis.
Bandalos, D. L. (2018). Measurement theory and applications for the social sciences. The Guilford Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
Beltrán, J. (1993). Procesos, estrategias y técnicas de aprendizaje [Learning procedures, strategies and techniques]. Síntesis.
Benassi, M., Garofalo, S., Ambrosini, V., Sant’Angelo, P., Raggini, R., De Paoli, G., Ravani, C., Giovagnoli, V., Orsoni, M., & Piraccini, G. (2020). Using two-step cluster analysis and latent class cluster analysis to classify the cognitive heterogeneity of cross-diagnostic psychiatric inpatients. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-11. 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01085
Boekaerts, M. (1996). Self-regulated learning at the junction of cognition and motivation. European Psychologist, 1 (2), 100-112. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.1.2.100
Boekaerts, M. (2006). Self-regulation and effort investment. In E. Sigel, & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. Volume four: Child psychology in practice (pp. 345- 377). John Wiley & Sons.
Boekaerts, M., & Niemivirta, M. (2000). Self-regulated learning: Finding a balance between learning goals and ego-protective goals. In M. Boekaerts, R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 417-451). Academic Press. 10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50042-1
Brandmo, C., Panadero, E., & Hopfenbeck, T. (2020). Bridging classroom assessment and self- regulated learning. Assessment in Education, 27 (4), 319-331. 10.1080/09 69594X.2020.1803589
Caena, F. (2019). Developing a European framework for the personal, social & learning to learn key competence (LifEComp). Literature review & analysis of frameworks. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/172528
Caena, F., & Stringher, C. (2020). Towards a new conceptualization of learning to learn. Aula Abierta, 49 (3), 207-216. https://doi.org/10.17811/rifie.49.3.2020.199-216
Cameron, R. B., & Rideout, C. A. (2020). «It’s been a challenge finding new ways to learn»: First-year students’ perceptions of adapting to learning in a university environment. Studies in Higher Education, 42 (11), 668-682. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1783525
Cortina, A. (2013). ¿Para qué sirve realmente la ética? [What is ethics useful for?]. Paidós.
Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. Official Journal of the European Union, C 189/1, of 4 June 2018. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01)
Deakin, R. (2007). Learning how to learn: The dynamic assessment of learning power. The Curriculum Journal, 18 (2), 135-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585170701445947
Deakin, R., Haigney, D., Huang, S., Coburn, T., & Goldspink, Ch. (2013). Learning power in the workplace: The effective lifelong learning inventory and its reliability and validity and implica- tions. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24 (11), 2255-2272. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2012.725075
DiStefano, C., Zhu, M., & Mîndrilã, D. (2009). Understanding and using factor scores: Considerations for the applied researcher. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 14 (20). 10.7275/da8t-4g52
Ehlers, U. D., & Kellermann, S. A. (2019). The future skills report. International Delphi survey on the next skills project. Baden-Wurttemberg-Cooperative State University.
Ergen, B., & Kanadli, S. (2017). The effect of self-regulated learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 17 (69), 55-74. https://ejer.com.tr/the-effect-of-self-regulated-learning-strategies-on-academic-achievement-a-meta-analysis-study/
European Political Strategy Centre. (2017). 10 trends transforming education as we know it. European Union. https://op.europa.eu/en/ publication-detail/-/publication/227c6186-10d0-11ea-8c1f-01aa75ed71a1
Furtado, A., & Machado, A. M. (2016). Learning to learn the nursing consultation: Comprehensive analysis in the perspective of the student. International Archives of Medicine, 9 (388), 1-9. 10.3823/2259
García-Bellido, R., Jornet, J., & González-Such, J. (2012). Una aproximación conceptual al diseño de instrumentos de evaluación de la competencia aprender a aprender en los profesionales de la educación [A conceptual approach for the design of instruments in education professionals for the evaluation of the competence learning to learn]. Revista Iberoamericana de Evaluación Educativa, 5 (1), 204-215. https://revistas.uam.es/riee/article/view/4436
Gargallo-López, B., Almerich, G., Suárez- Rodríguez, J. M., & García-Félix, E. (2012). Estrategias de aprendizaje en estudiantes universitarios excelentes y medios. Su evolución a lo largo del primer año de carrera [Learning strategies in excellent and average university students. Their evolution over the first year of the career]. Relieve, 18 (2). https://doi.org/10.7203/relieve.18.2.2000
Gargallo-López, B., Pérez-Pérez, C., García-García, J., Giménez, J. A., & Portillo, N. (2020). La competencia aprender a aprender en la universidad: propuesta de modelo teórico [The skill of learning to learn at university. Proposal for a theoretical model]. Educación XX1, 23 (1), 19-44. 10.5944/educXX1.23367
Gargallo-López, B., Suárez-Rodríguez, J. M., Pérez-Pérez, C., Almerich, G., & García-García, F. J. (2021). El cuestionario CECAPEU. Un instrumento para evaluar la competencia aprender a aprender en estudiantes universitarios [The QELtLCUS questionnaire. An instrument for evaluating the learning to learn competence in university students]. Relieve, 27 (1). https://doi.org/10.30827/relieve.v27i1.20760
González-Gascón, E. (2022). Learning to learn at the university. A marketing experience using the TAM. Technology Science and Society Review, 12 (3), 1-10. 10.37467/ revtechno.v11.4416
Grace, S., Innes, E., Patton, N., & Stockhausen, L. (2017). Ethical experiential learning in medical, nursing and allied health education: a narrative review. Nurse Education Today, 51, 23-33. 10.1016/j.nedt.2016.12.024
Grasso, P. (2020). Rendimiento académico: un recorrido conceptual que aproxima a una definición unificada para el ámbito superior [Academic performance: A conceptual journey that approximates a unified definition for the higher level]. Revista de Educación, 11 (20), 87-102.
Hadwin, A. F., Järvelä, S., & Miller, M. (2017). Self-regulation, co-regulation and shared regulation in collaborative learning environments. In D. H. Schunk, & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.) (pp. 83-106). Routledge / Taylor & Francis Group.
Hadwin, A. F., & Oshige, M. (2011). Self-regulation, coregulation, and socially shared regulation: Exploring perspectives of social in self-regulated learning theory. Teachers College Record, 113 (2), 240-264.
Hadwin, A. F., Wozney, L., & Pontin, O. (2005). Scaffolding the appropriation of self-regulatory activity: A socio-cultural analysis of changes in teacher-student discourse about a graduate student portfolio. Instructional Science, 33 (5-6), 413-450. 10.1007/s11251-005-1274-7
Hautamäki, J., Arinen, P., Niemivirta, M. J., Eronen, S., Hautamäki, A., Kupiainen, S., Lindblom, B., Pakaslahti, L., Rantanen, P., & Scheinin, P. (2002). Assessing learning-to- learn: a framework. Opetushallitus.
Hernández, F., Sales, P. J., & Cuesta, J. D. (2010). Impacto de un programa de autorregulación del aprendizaje en estudiantes de grado [A self-regulated learning intervention programme: Impact on university students]. Revista de Educación, 353, 571-588.
Higgins, N. L., Rathner, J. A., & Frankland, S. (2021). Development of self-regulated learning: a longitudinal study on academic performance in undergraduate science. Research in Science & Technological Education. 10.1080/02635143.2021.1997978
Hofer, B. K., & Yu, S. L. (2009). Teaching self-regulated learning through a «learning to learn» course. Teaching of Psychology, 30 (1), 30-33. 10.1207/S15328023TOP3001_05
Hoskins, B., & Fredriksson, U. (2008). Learning to learn: What is it and can it be measured? European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen y Centre for Research on Lifelong Learning (CRELL).
Hye-Jung, L., Lee, J., Makara, K. A., Fishman, J., & Teasley, S. D. (2017). A cross-cultural comparison of college students’ learning strategies for academic achievement between South Korea and the USA. Studies in Higher Education, 42 (1), 169-183. 10.1080/03075079.2015.1045473
Järvelä, S., & Hadwin, A. F. (2015). Promoting and researching adaptive regulation: New frontiers for CSCL research. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 559-561. 10.1016/ j.chb.2015.05.006
Järvelä, S., Järvenoja, H., & Veermans, M. (2008). Understanding dynamics of motivation in socially shared learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 47 (2), 122-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2007.11.012
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2017, September 22-23). Cooperative learning [Plenary presentation]. I Congreso Internacional de Innovación Educativa, Zaragoza, España. https://2017. congresoinnovacion.educa.aragon.es/documents/48/David_Johnson.pdf
Jornet, J. J., García-Bellido, R., & González-Such, J. (2012). Evaluar la competencia aprender a aprender: una propuesta metodológica [Assessing the competence learning to learn: a methodological proposal]. Profesorado. Revista de Currículum y Formación del Profesorado, 16 (1), 103-123. http://hdl.handle.net/10481/23009
Kass, M., & Faden, R. R. (2018). Ethics and learning health care: The essentials roles of engagement, transparency, and accountability. Learning Health Systems, 2 (4), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1002/lrh2.10066
Kosnin, A. M. (2007). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement in Malaysian undergraduates. International Educational Journal, 8 (1), 221-228.
Lloret-Segura, S., Ferreres-Traver, A., Hernández-Baeza, A., & Tomás-Marco, I. (2014). El análisis factorial exploratorio de los ítems: una guía práctica, revisada y actualizada [Exploratory item factor analysis: A practical guide revised and updated]. Anales de Psicología, 30 (3), 1151-1169. 10.6018/analesps.30.3.199361
Lluch, L., & Portillo, M. C. (2018). La competencia de aprender a aprender en el marco de la educación superior [Learning to learn in higher education]. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, 78 (2), 59-76. 10.35362/rie7823183
Lucieer, S. M., Jonker, L., Visscher, C., Rikers, M., & Themmen, A. P. (2016). Self-regulated learning and academic performance in medical education. Medical Teacher, 38 (6), 585-593. 10.3109/014215 9X.2015.1073240
Lugo, C. S. J., Hernández, G. R., Escoto, M. del C., & Montijo, E. L. (2016). Relación de los estilos y estrategias de aprendizaje con el rendimiento académico en estudiantes universitarios [Relationship of styles and learning strategies with the academic performance in university students]. Revista de Estilos de Aprendizaje, 9 (17), 268-288. 10.55777/rea.v9i17.1054
Lynch, D. J. (2006). Motivational factors, learning strategies and resource management as predictors of course grades. College Students Journal, 40 (2), 423-427.
Malnes, M., Vuksanović, N., & Simola M. (coords.). (2012). Bologna with student eyes 2012. European Students’ Union ESU. https://esu-online.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/BWSE2012-online1.pdf
Martín, E., & Moreno, A. (2007). Competencia para aprender a aprender [Learning to learn competence]. Alianza Editorial.
McCaslin, M., & Hickey, D. T. (2001). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: A Vygotskian view. In B. J. Zimmerman, & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 227-252). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McDonald, R. P. (1999). Test theory: A unified treatment. Psychology Press.
McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2010). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry (7th ed.). Pearson.
Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2002) Using instructional discourse analysis to study the scaffolding of student self-regulation. Educational Psychologist, 37 (1), 17-25. 10.1207/ S15326985EP3701_3
Moreno, A., & Martín, E. (2014). The Spanish approach to learning to learn. In R. Deakin, C. Stringher, & K. Ren (Eds.), Learning to learn (pp. 196-213). Routledge.
Morón-Monge, H., & García-Carmona, A. (2022). Developing prospective primary teachers’ learning-to-learn competence through experimental activities. International Journal of Science Education, 44 (12), 2015-2034. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2022.2108929
Muñoz-San Roque, I., Martín-Alonso, J. F., Prieto-Navarro, L., & Urosa-Sanz, B. (2016). Autopercepción del nivel de desarrollo de la competencia de aprender a aprender en el contexto universitario: propuesta de un instrumento de evaluación [Self-perceived level of development of learning to learn competence in the university context: A proposed measuring instrument]. Revista de Investigación Educativa, 34 (2), 369-383. 10.6018/rie.34.2.235881
Ning, H. K., & Downing, K. (2015). A latent profile analysis of university students’ self-regulated learning strategies. Studies in Higher Education, 40 (7), 1328-1346. 10.1080/03075079.2014.880832
Norton, L. S., & Crowley, C. M. (1995). Can students be helped to learn? An evaluation of an approach to learning programme for first year degree students. Higher Education, 29, 307-328. 10.1007/BF01384496
OECD. (2018). PISA Global Competence Framework. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/Handbook-PISA-2018-Global-Competence.pdf
OECD. (2019). OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030. Conceptual Learning Framework. Learning Compass 2030. https://bit.ly/3ksvYDK
Panadero, E. (2017). A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8 (422), 1-28. 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422
Pérez-González, J. C., Filella, G., Soldevila, A., Faiad, Y., & Sánchez-Ruiz, M. J. (2022). Integrating self-regulated learning and individual differences in the prediction of university academic achievement across a three-year-long degree. Metacognition and Learning, 17 (3), 1141-1165. 10.1007/s11409-022-09315-w
Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 452–502). Academic Press. 10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50043-3
Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 16 (4), 385-407. 10.1007/s10648-004-0006-x
Piovano, S., Roisen, E., Fischer, C., Rodriguez, G., & Victorero, B. (2018). Estrategias de aprendizaje que utilizan los estudiantes de 1.º año de los departamentos de psicología y ciencias pedagógicas, administración y ciencias sociales y sistemas de una universidad privada [Learning strategies used by 1st year students of the departments of psychology and pedagogical sciences, administration and social sciences and systems of a private university]. RAES: Revista Argentina de Educación Superior, 10 (17), 98-114.
Pirrie, A., & Thoutenhoofd, E. D. (2013). Learning to learn in the European Reference Framework for lifelong learning. Oxford Review of Education, 39 (5), 609-626. 10.1080/03054985.2013.840280
Ramírez, J. J. (2017). La competencia «aprender a aprender» en un contexto educativo de ingeniería [«Learn to learn» competence in an engineering educational context] [Doctoral thesis]. TDX (Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa). http://hdl.handle.net/10803/456383
Ray, M. W., & Garavalia, L. S. (2003, 21-25 de abril). Gender differences in self-regulated learning, task value, and achievement in developmental college students [Conference paper]. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, EE. UU.
Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning]. Official Journal of the European Union, L 394/10, of 30 December 2006. https://eurlex. europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=O-J:L:2006:394:0010:0018:en:PDF
Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for struc- tural equation modeling. Journal of statistical software, 48 (2), 1-36. 10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Ryder, G., Rusell, P., Burton, M. Quinn, P., & Daly, S. (2017). Embedding peer support as a core learning skill in higher education. Journal of Information Literacy, 11 (1), 184-302. https://arrow.tudublin.ie/ittsupart/10/
Säfström, C. A. (2018). Liveable life, educational theory and the imperative of constant change. European Educational Research Journal, 17 (5), 621-630. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904118784480
Sahranavard, S., Niri, M. R., & Salehiniya, H. (2018). The relationship between self-regulation and educational performance in students. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 7, 154. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6332646/pdf/JEHP-7-154.pdf
Sala, A., Punie, Y., Garkov, V., & Cabrera Giraldez, M. (2020). LifeComp: The European framework for personal, social and learning to learn key competence. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/302967
Schulz, M., & Stamov, C. (2010). Informal workplace learning: An exploration of age differences in learning competence. Learning and Instruction, 20 (5), 383-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.03.003
Stringher, C. (2014). What is learning to learn? A learning to learn process and output model. In R. Deakin, C. Stringher, & K. Ren (Eds.), Learning to learn (pp. 9-32). Routledge.
Tejedor, F. J. (Coord.). (1998). Los alumnos de la Universidad de Salamanca. Características y rendimiento académico [Students from the Salamanca University. Caracteristics and academic achievement]. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca.
Thoutenhoofd, E. D., & Pirrie, A. (2015). From self-regulation to learning to learn: Observations on the construction of self and learning. British Educational Research Journal, 41 (1), 72-84. 10.1002/berj.3128
Treviños, L. (2016). Estrategias de aprendizaje y rendimiento académico en estudiantes universitarios de Huancayo [Learning strategies and academic performance in college students from Huancayo] [Master thesis]. Repositorio de la Universidad Nacional del Centro del Perú. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12894/4485
Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills. Learning for life in our times. Jossey-Bass.
Viejo, C., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2018). Competencias para la investigación: el trabajo de fin de Máster y su potencialidad formativa [Competence for research: The master’s thesis and its scientific training potentiality]. Revista de Innovación y Buenas Prácticas Docentes, 5, 46-56. http://hdl.handle.net/10396/16951
Villardón-Gallego, L., Yániz, C., Achurra, C., Iraurgi, I., & Aguilar, M. C. (2013). Learning competence in university: Development and structural validation of a scale to measure. Psicodidáctica, 18 (2), 357-374. https://doi.org/10.1387/RevPsicodidact.6470
Virtanen, P., & Nevgi, A., (2010). Disciplinary and gender differences among higher education students in self-regulated learning strategies. Educational Psychology, 30 (3), 323-347.
von Glasersfeld, E. (1989). Cognition, construction of knowledge, and teaching. Synthese, 80 (1), 121-140. 10.1007/BF00869951
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
Weinstein, C. E. (1987). LASSI user’s manual for those administering the learning and study strategies inventory. H&H Publishing Company.
Weinstein, C. E. (1988). Assessment and training of student learning strategies. In R. R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning strategies and learning styles (pp. 291-316). Plenum Press.
Weinstein, C. E., & Acee, T. W. (2018). Study and learning strategies. In R. F. Flippo, & T. W. Bean (Eds.), Handbook of college reading and study strategy research (pp. 227-240). Routledge.
Weinstein, C. E., Husman, J., & Dierking, D. (2000). Self-regulation interventions with a focus on learning strategies. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeinder (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 727-747). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50051-2
Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1985). The teach- ing of learning strategies. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 315-327). MacMillan.
Weinstein C. E. Zimmerman S. A. & Palmer D. R. (1988). Assessing learning strategies: The design and development of the Lassi. In C. E. Weinstein E. T. Goetz & P. A. Alexander (Eds.) Learning and study strategies (pp. 25-40). Academic Press.
Wibrowski C. R.
Author Biography
Bernardo Gargallo-López is a Professor of Theory of Education at the Universidad de Valencia. First National Prize for Educational Research in 2000 and 2002. His current line of research and the competitive projects he has directed centre on teaching and learning in the university setting. He runs the GIPEA group.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2805-4129
Gonzalo Almerich-Cerveró is an Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Research Methods at the Universidad de Valencia. His research centres on the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in education, 21st-century competences, the learning processes of students, educational measurement, and educational research methodology.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8952-4104
Fran-J. García-García is an Associate Professor in the Department of Theory of Education, Universidad de Valencia. He won the Special Master’s Prize in Special Education. His most recent works cover online learning, university pedagogy, and higher-education students’ learning.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6267-0080
Inmaculada López-Francés has a doctorate in education from the Universidad de Valencia and is an Associate Professor. Licentiate Degree and Doctoral prizes from the Universidad de Valencia. Her lines of research include sexual, affective, identity, and gender diversity and university pedagogy.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1178-9054
Piedad-M.ª Sahuquillo-Mateo has a doctorate in Education from the Universidad de Valencia and is an Associate Professor of Theory of Education. Her research interests centre on the family and the minor and on university pedagogy.
Citación recomendada | Recommended citation
Gargallo-López, B., Almerich-Cerveró, G., García-García, F. J., López-Francés, I., y Sahuquillo-Mateo, P. M.ª (2023). Perfiles de estudiantes universitarios en la competencia aprender a aprender y su relación con el rendimiento académico [University student profiles in the learning to learn competence and their relationship with academic achievement]. Revista Española de Pedagogía, 81 (286), 457-487. 10.22550/REP81-3-2023-02
Licencia Creative Commons | Creative Commons License
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License
Palabras clave | Keywords
learning to learn competence, self-regulated learning
