JEUNESSE C. (2017) Emergence of the Ideology of the Warrior in the Western Mediterranean during the second Half of the fourth Millennium BC, Eurasia Antiqua. Zeitschrift für Archäologie Eurasiens 14 (2014), p. 171-184.

Christian  Jeunesse

It has long been a tradition, when sketching a broad picture of Neolithic Europe, to date one of the major historical turning points to the transition between the megalithic period of the Late Neolithic I (the SOM-Horgen- Wartberg horizon) and the beaker cultures of the Late Neolithic II (Corded Ware and Bell Beaker). According to this theory, the emergence of the Corded Ware culture at the beginning of the third millennium, followed a few centuries later in other areas by the Bell Beaker culture, would coincide with the beginning of a new ideology allowing a greater role to the individual and focused on the warrior figure, as suggested by the symbolic value granted to the weapons (dagger, axe and bow). And yet, it is often overlooked that this pattern is relevant only for part of Europe. In other regions, particularly the area encompassing the North Pontic steppes and the fore-Caucasus region and several areas of the western Mediterranean, the ideology of the warrior is strongly established as early as the second half of the fourth millennium BC. This article will briefly examine the data available for the western Mediterranean. The upheavals that have affected the concerned areas (Italy, Iberian Peninsula and South of France) during the 3400–3000 BC chronological horizon (development of metallurgy, emergence of new types of copper or flint weapons, warrior graves, and anthropomorphic steles) suggest the existence of a homogeneous movement of diffusion expressing differently according to the type and degree of the local reactions. Concerning the origins of this movement, the recent available data tend to confirm the old theory of the steppe influences. It is remarkable indeed that the bundle of traits which characterize the ideological revolution in the western Mediterranean at the end of the fourth millennium and those present in the North Pontic area and the North Caucasus foothill before 3500 BC, especially in the Maikop culture, display a similar configuration.

Emergence of the Ideology of the Warrior in the Western Mediterranean during the second Half of the fourth Millennium BC By Christian Jeunesse1 Schlagwörter: Keywords: ˚º2å*,ß* æº;,-: Iberische Halbinsel/Frankreich/Italien/Südosteuropa/Nordschwarzmeerraum/Nordkaukasien/ SOM-Horgen-Wartberg-Horizont/Megalith-Kultur/Majkop-Kultur/Schnurkeramik-Kultur/ Glockenbecher-Kultur/Remedello-Kultur/Grab/Waﬀen Iberian Peninsula/France/Italy/Southeast Europe/Northern Black Sea Area/North Caucasus/ SOM-Horgen-Wartberg horizon/Megalith culture/Maikop culture/Corded ware culture/ Bellbeaker culture/Remedello ¨Æ*(æŒ-' :;º#;æ$(;,/J(-=çŁ'/¨$-ºŁ'/.ª;,;æ$;å=;Ø ¯,(;:ß/0*,*(=-' ˇ(Łå*(=;>;(5*/ 0*,*(=ßØ ˚-,Œ-Å/0˛3-ˆ;(ª*=-´-($Æ*(ª ª;(ŁÅ;=$/3*ª-ºŁ$=-' Œ#º5$#(-/3-ØŒ;:æŒ-' Œ#º5$#(-/G=#(;,-' Œ*(->ŁŒ- Œ#º5$#(-/˚#º5$#(- —*>*+*ºº;/ˇ;ª*(Æ*=Ł'/˛(#øŁ' Introduction When sketching a broad picture of European Neolithic, it has become a standard practice to date one of the major historical turning points to the transition between the megalithic period of the Late Neolithic I (the SOM-Horgen-Wartberg horizon) and the Late Neolithic II beaker cultures, namely Corded Ware and Bell Beaker. The emergence of the Corded Ware culture, followed a few centuries later and in other areas by that of the Bell Beaker culture, would coincide with the appearance of a new ideology, giving a more prominent role to the individual and focused on the warrior ﬁgure, as suggested by the greater symbolic value granted to weapons, for instance daggers, axes and bows placed in certain male graves. We will not go further in the characterization of the ‘‘ideology of the warrior’’, to put it simply, even if we are aware that the very notion it implies needs debating.2 This paper is going to discuss the date of the emergence, at a continental level, of this mutation, considered by many authors as a true social and ideological revolution. A broader overview on continental scale shows how the importance given the transition between the Late Neolithic I and II is tightly related to the fact that its deﬁnition has been given by specialists from areas where the emergence of the ideology of the warrior actually coincide with that of the beaker cultures and where they have been struck by the brutal contrast between the local tradition of collective mega1 CNRS, UMR 7044 – Institut universitaire de France – jeunessechr@free.fr. – Here we want to thank the director of the Eurasia-Department of the German Archaeological Institute, Prof. Dr. Svend Hansen, for the possibility to publish this article in Eurasia Antiqua. 2 For the most recent publication on the subject, see the introduction of the concept of the charismatic ‘‘hero’’ by Hansen 2013. Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 lithic burials containing poor and hardly discriminatory grave goods, and the appearance of single graves of men accompanied by bows, daggers or battle axes. This scenario can truly be applied only to the western and northern fringes of the continent, namely a zone which corresponds to the distribution area, except for the western Mediterranean, of the second megalithic movement (3500–2800/2400 BC). Elsewhere can be found at least two large areas in which the evolution is diﬀerent and where the two moments corresponding to the appearance of both the Corded Ware and the Bell Beaker cultures are not much historically signiﬁcant. The ﬁrst area is located in the south of Eastern Europe, between the eastern Carpathian foothills and the northern Caucasian ones. There, warrior graves presenting the same characteristics as the beaker cultures graves can be found at least since the emergence of the Maikop culture, circa 3800/ 3700 BC, where they reﬂect a social and ideological context that will last uninterruptedly till the second half of the third millennium. The Yamnaja culture (3300 –2500 BC) plays a major role in the eastward (up to the Altai3) and westward (Carpathian basin) spreading of this large complex born from the Maikop culture. During the second half of the fourth millennium, its social structure is characterized by a strong vertical diﬀerentiation, as testiﬁed by the existence of aristocratic, even ‘‘royal’’ graves, such as the famous mound burial in the eponymous site.4 During the following horizon, dominated by the Yamnaja and the Catacomb cultures, the small elite which beneﬁted from these luxuriously ﬁlled graves disappears and a two-level society appears, 3 4 For the role played by the Yamnaja culture in the formation of the Afanasievo culture: see Anthony 2007. Jeunesse 2014. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 172 Christian Jeunesse in which the dominating cast is composed, as in the beaker cultures, of local chiefs buried with their weapons. Attention will now be drawn to the second area, located in the western Mediterranean, which covers, with various levels of intensity, the Italian Peninsula, Sardinia,5 the Southern Alps and the south of the Iberian Peninsula, and diﬀuses towards the neighboring areas, notably the other regions of the Iberian Peninsula and the South-East of France. The ideology of the warriors emerges here far sooner than the Bell Beaker culture. According to the regions, it can indeed be dated between 3500 and 3000 and it marks the establishment of a new civilization which will bloom during the ﬁrst half of the third millennium. In the areas more strongly impacted by this movement, the appearance of the Bell Beaker culture can be considered as a mere secondary event which does not challenge the ideological and social bases. The western Mediterranean hence split in two distinct areas: on the one hand regions such as northern and central Italy where the ideology of the warrior becomes the dominating one, on the other hand conﬂict zones where it comes up against the strong resistance of the ancient ideology of collective megalithic graves. The Alp area, with the famous examples of Sion and Saint-Martin-de-Corléans (Aosta), is in a way situated on the front line of this ideological ﬁght. Warrior graves from the fourth millennium in the western Mediterranean Italy In Italy, the long lasting pre-Bell Beaker period when the ideology of the warrior dominated is known through the famous Remedello, Spilamberto, Gaudo and Rinaldone cultures, to mention only the main ones. It has yielded a great number of cemeteries with warrior graves, the composition of which very much resembles that of later Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cemeteries from central and Atlantic Europe. The standard grave goods in male graves from the dominating strata are composed of a dagger (in copper or ﬂint), a copper ﬂat axe and a more or less big amount of ﬁnely retouched ﬂint arrowheads that probably accompanied a bow. The staple metal set (dagger and ﬂat axe) is often complemented by a quadrangular sectioned awl. This is for instance the case in grave 20 from Ponte San Pietro 5 Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 Concerning Sardinia that will not be mentioned any more Melis et al. 2012 for the overall context. – Usai/Perra 2012: anthropomorphic steles. (Latium) (Fig. 1). The basic set can be found in the Rinaldone graves from Stroncone, Pieza and Guardistallo (Fig. 2) as well as in some graves from the Remedello and Spilamberto cultures in northern Italy. The establishment and consolidation of the ideology of the warrior all along the centuries come along with the emergence of a whole range of new objects – among which a wide range of daggers and ﬂint or copper halberd blades – with an unprecedented development of the metallurgy and with the appearance of anthropomorphic steles, some of which bearing decorations that strongly recall the grave goods found in warrior graves. The increasing number of radiocarbon dating has led these past years to assign a signiﬁcantly older date to the emergence of this phenomenon, which was classically dated to the beginnings of the third millennium. All the dates considered today are around 3500/3300: 3300 for the Gaudo culture,6 3400/3300 for the Remedello7 and Spilamberto8 cultures. Concerning Rinaldone, the dating made on graves from the Lunghezzina9 and Ponte San Pietro10 cemeteries have given similar results, tending to be even slightly older.11 Ötzi’s presumed grave (southern Tyrol), dated between 3350 and 3120,12 belongs to the same chronological horizon and cultural background. According to these dates, the life of the corresponding cultures must be considerably lengthened, all of them seeming to last at least until the middle of the third millennium. Along this long period of time, the precise date of appearance of the most emblematic objects (for instance the various types of daggers, halberd blades, the various stylistic categories of anthropomorphic steles, the crutch-shaped pins. . .) still remains to be speciﬁed.13 Once this work is completed, it will be possible to distinguish between the original set and the characteristics that were added all along this period. We are thus facing today an Early Chalcolithic (or late Neolithic I) with warrior ideology and single graves, the ﬁrst part of which (c. 3500 –2900) is con6 Paciarelli 2011. 7 De Marinis 2013. 8 Bernabò Brea/Miari 2013. 9 Anzidei et al. 2003. 10 Dolﬁni 2010. 11 Grave 3 from Lunghezzina (Latium): between 3630 and 3380 BC (Anzidei et al. 2003), Ponte San Pietro (Latium): 6 dates from 4 graves, situated between 3750 and 3014 BC (Dolﬁni 2010, 713). 12 Egg/Spindler 2009. 13 The recent Italian papers on this subject already provide great help. Let’s mention for instance the Remedello type dagger, for which a series of dating made on the US 8 level of the Grotta della Spinosa (Dolﬁni 2010) suggests a probable existence as early as the end of 4th millennium (four dates between 3485 and 2903 BC). Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift Ideology of the Warrior 173 Fig. 1. San Pietro, Ischia di Castro, province of Viterbe. Grave goods from the Chalcolithic burial (Rinaldone culture) n 20. Grave goods. – 3.4.21–24 copper (after Miari 1993). Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 174 Christian Jeunesse Fig. 2. Assemblages from Chalcolithic single graves from Central Italy (Rinaldone culture). A Pienza; B Stroncone; C Guardistallo (after Müller-Karpe 1974, pl. 438). temporary to the Horgen Culture and the great time of erection of the collective graves during the second megalithic period in northern Germany, southern Scandinavia, western and southern France. This is indeed not an unvarying complex; nevertheless it shows a globally homogeneous image as testiﬁed, among other things, by the standard male grave goods. It has already been underlined how, except for a few secondary diﬀerences such as the main role of the copper ﬂat axe, these goods did show strong resemblances with the beaker cultures. The existence of a few exceptional grave goods characterized by an over-abundance of weapons is another focal point. After S. Hansen,14 one can mention for instance grave 3 from the Rinaldone necropolis, in which two ﬂat axes, three daggers, one halberd blade and 22 arrowheads were discovered; it can be compared with the 18 ﬂint arrowheads, two wrist guards and three copper daggers from the famous Amesbury Bell Beaker grave.15 Relatively speaking, this abundance of weapons allows to link those graves and certain steles from the southern Alps foothills, such as Arco’s16 (Fig. 3). Older dates and results from recent excavations, particularly settlements,17 are thus bringing out a civilization block of major importance, both by its geographical extension and its duration, the historical meaning of which had been so far largely underestimated. In the area concerned here, the presumed revolution of the beaker cultures (in this case the Bell Beaker culture) would actually be a mere secondary event in a region where the ideology of the warrior has been prominent for at least nine or ten centuries. The Iberian Peninsula The same phenomenon has hit the Iberian Peninsula, though to a lesser extent. The end of the fourth millennium is characterized by the spectacular development of metallurgy, the appearance of anthro- 16 17 14 Hansen 2013. 15 Fitzpatrick 2011. Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 This relation was underlined by Hansen as early as 2002 (Hansen 2002). We are referring in particular to the large houses from the Via Guidorossi in Parma, dated to the transition between the 4th and 3rd millenniums (Bernabò Brea/Mazzieri 2013). Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 175 Ideology of the Warrior pomorphic steles and a whole range of copper objects that signiﬁcantly resembles the one observed in Italy. Even if no large cemetery with single graves has been identiﬁed so far, single graves with warrior grave goods are nevertheless present. The most spectacular is the famous Alcalá burial (province of Algarve, southern Portugal). This grave was placed in a niche put in the edge of a tholos;18 the abundant grave assemblage it yielded consisted of the usual mix of copper (three ﬂat axes, four halberd blades, at least ﬁve dagger blades, a chisel and a quadrangular-sectioned awl) and ﬂint (seven non retouched large blades and 13 arrowheads) objects. They came along with ﬁve vessels and 32 bone and stone beads (Fig. 4). All the characteristics of the rich Italian male graves are represented in this grave marked by over-abundant equipment.19 It is not dated precisely, but commonly attributed to a late phase of the Los Millares culture, in particular due to the presumed presence of halberd blades, however considered by some researchers more as dagger blades. Yet, thanks to some discoveries, notably in Italy (grave goods and iconography of anthropomorphic steles), we know today that the halberd (with ﬂint or copper blade) undoubtedly appears before the emergence of the Bell Beaker culture. It is thus highly likely that the Alcalá burial should be dated to the pre-Bell Beaker period, contemporary to the full bloom (3100 –2500) of the great Chalcolithic cultures (Los Millares and Vilanova de São Pedro) in the South of the Iberian Peninsula. The Alcalá burial holds a special place at that time. It can indeed be considered as a single burial placed inside the chamber of a collective grave, as the case often happens later for a great number of Bell Beaker burials, and thus testify to the existence of a dual – and maybe conﬂictive – funerary system that would associates the traditional ‘‘collective’’ burial to a ritual drawn towards the exaltation of the warrior individual. The discovery of the cist grave of Reguers de Sero n Artesa de Segre20 (Catalonia) ( ) brought evidence of the existence in the Iberian Peninsula of pre-Bell beaker anthropomorphic steles resembling those of northern Italy.21 The absence so far of cemeteries composed of single graves is the main difference with what happens in Italy between 3400 and 2500. The changes that take place at the end 18 Leisner/Leisner 1943. 19 The large unretouched blades are found also in the Italian graves from the late Neolithic I. There is not enough space in this paper to detail the place of these blades in the ‘‘warrior’’ grave goods and to learn from this additional aﬃnity between Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and the South of France. 20 Lopez et al. 2009; Tarrus Galter 2012. 21 With the same episodes of destruction and reuse during the Bell Beaker period as in Sion and Aoste. Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 Fig. 3. Trentino, northern Italy. The anthropomorphic Arco stele illustrates the diversity of metallurgical productions in the Italian Chalcolithic and shows a spectacular example of overequipment (after Brandherm 2004). of the fourth millennium are thus less deeply rooted in the Iberian Peninsula, where the indigenous culture is resisting more strongly, as proved by the mixing observed in the Alcalá barrow. What can be seen at its purest in Italy appears here under a somewhat blurred form due to the stronger resistance of the local culture which integrates the innovations while partially adapting them at the same time. The South of France This phenomenon concerns the South of France as well. The same spectacular development of metallurgy at the end of the fourth millennium is to be observed there too, together with the same boom – quantitatively and qualitatively speaking – of the copper and ﬂint daggers and the emergence, probably over a rather long time phase, of several types of anthropomorphic steles, the well-known ‘‘sta- Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 176 Fig. 4. Alcalá, Algarve, Portugal. Individual burial. Metal and lithic grave goods (after Leisner/ Leisner 1943). – 1–15.32.35.36 copper; 16 –31.33.34 ﬂint. Christian Jeunesse tues-menhirs’’. Even if at least one ‘‘Italian’’ type grave has been discovered, we have to keep in mind that we are here on the other side of the cultural frontier previously evoked through the examples of the sites of Sion and Aoste. Just like in Spain, the problem comes from the more or less pronounced dilution of the innovations in the indigenous cultural background, namely the collective burials, with which the ambivalent relationships show both conﬂict and cultural mixing. The above mentioned Italian type grave, situated in Fontaine-le-Puits (Savoie), has recently returned to the spotlight with the new review of its data (Rey et al. 2010). It is dated between 3500 and 3100 BC22 and has yielded abundant grave goods, consisting notably of a ﬂat axe, a copper blade, 33 ﬂint arrowheads and 10 ﬂint blades, two greenstone axes and two wild boar’s tusks (Fig. 5). This set remains the only one known on the western side of the Alps, an area where the Italian type ‘‘chalcolithization’’ process seems to have a limited impact before 3000 BC. The inﬂuences that testify to a phenomenon similar to the one which produced the warrior graves cultures in northern Italy become more important later, as proved by the numerous anthropomorphic steles and the appearance of a wide range of daggers (in copper or ﬂint) and all over retouched arrowheads that largely overlaps the range known on the other side of the Alps. The westwards dissemination of the Remedello type dagger, with the well-known example from the Orgon dolmen23 and the rock carved images24 are a good illustration of this phenomenon. Like the Orgon dagger, most objects belonging to the ‘‘warrior set’’ come from collective burials, as in the South of the Iberian Peninsula. Their presence could be the sign of the contamination by exogenous practices of the ‘‘egalitarian’’ funerary ideology during the second megalithic period, which shows above all through a prevailing ‘‘poverty’’ of grave goods in collective graves. The lack of closed ﬁnds utterly prevents us from recreating the ‘‘individual’’ sets in collective graves, nevertheless an examination of the inventories shows that the range of artefacts concerned –notably the ﬂat axe-dagger-bunch of arrowheads trio- is similar to the one associated with the ‘‘Italian’’ warriors. As for the Iberian Peninsula, a limited impact of the ideology of the warrior on a society which somehow tries to preserve its ideological basics is then the most probable as- 22 Poz – 25225: 4615 " 35 BP (3516 –3142); Ly-1840: 4570 23 Rossi/Gattiglia 2005. 24 " 45 BP (3497–3100) (Rey et al. 2010). Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 Morin/Picavet 2005. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 177 Ideology of the Warrior sumption. On the ‘‘statues menhirs’’, weapons are not or very discretely represented (depending on the interpretation of some motives): this could be another proof of these mixing phenomena that testify to a local reinterpretation of exogenous traits. Origins in the steppes? The ideology of the warrior, often still considered to have been created by the Late Neolithic II ‘‘megacultures’’ (i. e. The Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures) is deﬁnitely present in Italy in a completed form as early as the third fourth of the fourth millennium. Somewhat later and at various degrees, the transformations that directed its implementation also aﬀect part or whole of the Iberian Peninsula and the South of France. They appear coherent enough to allow to gamble, that they reﬂect a homogeneous movement. The development or the renewal of the copper metallurgy25 (including the innovative intentional use of the copper-arsenic alloy)26, the single male burial containing warrior grave goods, the higher social and symbolic value of the weapons – the same range everywhere, with widely overlapping typologies- and the production of anthropomorphic steles: all these novelties certainly did not appear nearly at the same moment all over the Western Mediterranean area just by chance. The fact that this bundle of innovations works as a package is negatively illustrated by its absence in Corsica, where none of its characteristics ever penetrated during this period. Italy is the most aﬀected region and the break with the various local backgrounds is great. Elsewhere one can observe some kinds of compromise between the ‘‘individualistic’’ ideology of the warrior and the local ideology of collective burials. From my point of view, the geographical scale and the homogeneity of this phenomenon are decisive arguments against the sometimes put forward hypothesis of a local evolution from the various cultures that were present in the concerned region before 3500/3300 BC. This point of view is always based on partial views that do not take into account the global coherence of the phenomenon. A certain specialist will insist on the existence in Italy of signs of a copper metallurgy prior to the emergence of the ideology of the warrior,27 but he will forget to notice how deep, both quantitatively and qualitatively, the break of 25 This comes together, at least in Italy, with the appearance of a whole range or silver objects (Bergonzi 2012). 26 This alloy allows the production of sturdier objects. Concerning this point, see Chernykh 1992 for eastern Europe; Müller et al. 2007 for the Los Millares culture; Briard 1991 for the Artenac Culture (southwestern France); De Marinis 2005 for the Italian Early Chalcolithic. 27 Dolﬁni 2010. Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 the metallurgical practice on the threshold of the Chalcolithic is, and how the typology of the copper artefacts is completely renewed. Others will explain how the ‘‘statues-menhirs’’ from southern France are ‘‘announced’’ by menhirs described as ‘‘aniconic steles’’, but they will not ponder about the overall context, social in particular, in which the anthropomorphic steles appeared and about its relationships with the other simultaneously emerging characters. In a recent work about the ‘‘statues-menhirs’’28 I have tried to show that the new conﬁguration which becomes predominant with the ‘‘revolution’’ of the ideology of the warrior in the second half of the fourth millennium is after all no more than the reproduction, whatever the selected level of analysis (isolated object, assemblage of funerary goods, nature and concomitance of the changes), of a system that exists in the other big area that has yielded single warrior burials, namely the south of eastern Europe, between the western fringes of the North-Pontic steppes and the Caucasus northern foothill. In this area is located a great cultural complex, ﬁrst expressing itself as early as 3800 BC through the Maikop culture, and in a second time evolving to several cultures among which the Yam28 Fig. 5. Fontaine-le-Puits, Savoie, France. Chalcolithic burial dated between 3500 and 3100 BC (after Strahm 2005). – 1 copper awl and antler haft socket; 2 copper axe; 3 copper dagger; 4 copper blade; 5–7 ﬂint arrowheads; 8.9: boar tusks; 10.11 ﬂint blades; 12 shell pendant. Jeunesse 2015. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 178 Christian Jeunesse naja culture is the most famous, and more or less contemporary to the chronological horizon dealt with in this paper (3300 –2500 BC). Recent research have shown that the elements composing what some have called the Yamnaja ‘‘package’’, including the anthropomorphic steles, are actually already present in the Maikop29 culture, which we consider as the epicentre of the phenomenon whose eﬀects on the western Mediterranean regions have been described. Concerning western cultures with warrior burials, the idea of a steppe origin – to put it simply – is not new. Everyone knows that it lies at the heart of Marija Gimbutas’s work. Because of the exaggeration in her diﬀusionist theories and the wellknown changes in paradigms that have aﬀected the evolution of European research during the second half of the 20th century, this hypothesis has been pushed aside. And yet, no one has been able so far to oﬀer an alternative pattern that would globally and satisfactorily account for the facts used by Gimbutas to back up her argumentation. Hence the diﬀusionist option could not do but come back sooner or later in the scientiﬁc debate. It goes to R. Harrison and V. Heyd to have ﬁrst dared give it back the place it deserves. In a large-scale work the two researchers have proposed an inventory of the Central European and Balkan sites which present traits of steppe origin and developed the theory of the existence of a major wave of inﬂuences following the establishment of the Yamnaja culture in the eastern Carpathian basin, said to have taken place between 2900 and 2700 BC.30 According to these authors, the ‘‘Yamnaja event’’ would explain the existence of a whole series of Yamnaja type grave sets, such as the ones found in Mala Gruda and Velika Gruda graves in Montenegro,31 only to mention two particularly emblematic examples. They describe a circulation from East to West, prior indeed to the Bell Beaker diﬀusion, but according to them not going back beyond 2900 BC32 and, leaving aside the statues-menhirs, not spreading much further than the Italian Alps and the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Their reasoning is very convincing and oﬀers a historical overview much invaluable for the understanding of European history in the ﬁrst half of the third millennium. Yet the weak point lies in totally blanking the fact that the ﬁrst occur29 The following works can give a rather exhaustive picture of this culture: Rezepkin 2000; Godevarica 2002; Anthony 2007; Müller-Karpe 1974; Chernykh 1992; Ivanova 2007, 2012, Jeunesse 2014. 30 Harrison/Heyd 2007. 31 Primas 1996. 32 Some authors give an earlier date for the establishment of the Yamnaja culture in the eastern part of the Carpathian basin, for instance T. Horváth for which the colonization process begins around 3100/3000 BC: Horváth 2011; Horváth 2012. Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 rences of the steppe ‘‘set’’ in western Europe are a great deal prior to the Yamnaja event, since they are present as early as the last third of the fourth millennium in the areas mentioned above. We are thus convinced of the existence of a ﬁrst wave of steppe inﬂuences during the last centuries of the fourth millennium, which constitutes the opening event of an expansion that afterwards goes on all along the Late Neolithic I horizon, between 3500/3300 and 2500 BC. The new dates mentioned above give them a wider historical depth that can partly explain the great diversity of their expressions and of the reconﬁgurations they provoked among the western Mediterranean societies.33 All things considered, the model put forward is similar to Heyd and Harrison’s, who describe a two-pronged scenario, ﬁrst with the steppe complex expanding its territory just like a real colonization (establishment of the Yamnaja culture in the Carpathian Basin), and in a second time with faraway and limited projections from the newly occupied territory or from the Steppes area on. In our case, the expansion is the one leading the steppe element towards the Lower Danube areas in the middle of the fourth millennium, and the faraway projections correspond to what I intended to describe in this paper. These projections had various impacts, given their strength and the level of resistance of the indigenous societies. To illustrate this aspect, let’s take a closer look at one last example, the Ventabren barrow cemetery, Bouches-du Rhône, France. This cemetery34 was excavated in 1995 and has yielded ﬁve circular barrows delimited by stone rings, a feature that is clearly diﬀerent from the regional dolmen architecture of the time and at the same time faithfully imitates the architecture of the eastern kurgans from the Maikop culture and its derivate manifestations during the fourth and third millenniums in eastern and southern Europe (Fig. 6), to which it is also very close through two other utterly major aspects: on the one hand the use of reemployed steles in the implementation of the limitation system, and on the other hand the fact that these monuments were conceived to house single burials. One of them, dated to between 3370 and 2925 BC, has yielded 11 large blades made by using pressure technique.35 Another one was partially dismantled and replaced between 3100 and 2900 BC by a collective grave. This very changeover makes this site particu33 This variability may also be caused by the cultural diversity which reigns in the source regions of the steppic complex (Jeunesse 2015). 34 Hasler 1998; Hasler 2005; detailed analysis in: Jeunesse 2015. 35 Renault 2006. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 179 Ideology of the Warrior Fig. 6. Funerary architectures of steppe tradition (Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age). A Kriaritsi, Greece, Early Bronze Age; B barrows II, III and V, Ventabren, Bouches-du-Rhône, France; ca. 3000 BC); C barrows 2 and 12, Usatovo, Ukraine, Usatovo culture; second half of the 4th millenium; D Aul Kubin, Russia, Maikop culture; second half of the 4th millenium. – (A after Rahmstorf 2010; B after Hasler et al. 2002; C after Anthony 2007; D after Häusler 1994). larly emblematic in the way that it oﬀers us an interesting picture of the resistance showed by the indigenous cultures in front of the ideology of the warrior. A ﬁrst ‘‘steppe’’ stage, very far away from the megalithic collective graves which rule over the regional funerary landscape of that time, is followed by a kind of re-appropriation of the cemetery by the locals. This scenario has its parallel in the early, pre-Bell Beaker stage of the Sion cemetery, where an anthropomorphic stele testifying to a former ‘‘steppe’’-like state of the site was reemployed by the builders of a dolmen on platform containing a collective grave collective grave which perfectly ﬁts the overall climate of the second megalithic period. A similar replacement of a single grave in a round Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 barrow with a kurgan-like stone ring by a collective grave has been observed on another site in the Provence area, the Ubac dolmen in Goult (Vaucluse, France), where one can also see reemployed aniconic steles.36 On this site again, an attempt at ‘‘kurganization’’ seems obviously to have been stopped by a ‘‘conservative’’ reaction. The advantage of a model based on a diﬀusion of steppe traits and a ‘‘clash of ideologies’’ –which will very likely raise virulent criticism – is the possibility it oﬀers to understand globally the available data, even the most weird ones. The diﬀusionist explanation is truly the only one to satisfac36 Sauzade 2012. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 180 Christian Jeunesse torily account for both the nature and concomitance of the changes which aﬀect the areas discussed herein during the last centuries of the fourth millennium. Conclusions The introduction pointed out the existence of two regions where the ideology of the warrior existed as early as the fourth millennium. Adding to this proposition I suggested that these two areas can be related to each other by a diﬀusion route across Southern Europe and be part of a one and only historical process. Central Europe, the northern half of Western Europe and Northern Europe, where cultures pertaining to the Danubian (Baden) or Michelsberg/TRBK traditions go on prospering, remain more or less completely untouched by this process. These areas represent as many resistance centers that will much later end up opening to the ideology of the warrior thanks to the diﬀusion of the Corded Ware-Bell Beaker complex. As the reader may have noticed, this idea of a wide diﬀusion of steppe origin that would have happened during the last centuries of the fourth millennium brings me to follow Marija Gimbutas’s footsteps. And yet, the scenario I propose diﬀers from her interpretations37 on several basic issues: – Like Harrison and Heyd’s work, it is based on widely renewed resources and on a chronological frame far more precise than the one Gimbutas had at her disposal. – Gimbutas had indeed identiﬁed a wave from the steppes dated to the end of the fourth millennium and very pertinently thought its origins were to be searched for in the Maikop culture,38 but she did not apprehend that this wave had deep historical consequences only in southern Europe; in other words she was not able to identiﬁed the preferential route spreading from the North of the Black Sea to Andalusia through the Italian Peninsula. As far as I am concerned, this event corresponds to the ﬁrst great wave of inﬂuences from the Steppes. I ﬁrmly deny the existence of a prior wave dated to the 5th millennium, as postulated by Gimbutas. As B. Govedarica demonstrated,39 the convergences at that time between the Steppes area and the ‘‘old’’ Neolithic Europe come from ﬂows of ideas that circulated in the opposite direction, from the Carpathian-Balkan block towards the steppes. 37 Gimbutas 1994. 38 Gimbutas 1994, 53. 39 Govedarica 2004. Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 Yet, I am also convinced that the steppe inﬂuences and the ideology of the warrior have been one of the major driving forces in the historical transformations at the end of the Neolithic, as early as the second half of the fourth millennium in southern Europe, and during the third millennium everywhere else. In the scenario proposed here, the ﬁrst and powerful impulsion is given by the Maikop culture, the most signiﬁcant result being the emergence of the great Italian Chalcolithic cultures. A long period ensues during which the ideology of the warrior evolves diﬀerently according to the areas: consolidation and development in Italy during the ﬁrst half of the third millennium; elsewhere, creation of syncretism due to the cultural mixing with the long existing ideology of the megalithic collective grave cultures. The confrontation of these ideologies may have also lead to conﬂicts, as testiﬁed by the restoration of the former order in places such as Sion, Ventabren and Goult. This ﬁrst wave of inﬂuences leads to the creation of a network connecting the steppes and western Mediterranean basin, in which the roads will along the centuries favor the diﬀusion of the eastern traits that keep on arriving during the ﬁrst half of the third millennium, as brilliantly demonstrated by Harrison and Heyd. According to the regions, the appearance of the warrior graves comes along with the emergence of a vigorous development of the copper metallurgy, the intentional use of the copper-arsenic alloy being one of its main features. Parallel to this technical mutation one must mention the appearance of a whole range of new metallic types, most of them reproducing types already known in the steppes before 3500 BC. These artefacts are found in stereotyped funerary sets which also imitate those of the steppes. The Alcalá burial is the most spectacular testimony of the simultaneous appearance of rich military funerary goods and a mighty copper metallurgy, which simply reproduces the combination that led to the extraordinary development of the Maikop culture. The central role of the copper metallurgy in the revolution I tried to outline leads me to propose the integration of the regions in question in the ‘‘Circumpontic metallurgy province’’ previously described by E. N. Chernykh, and in which the systematic use of the copper-arsenic alloy is one of the main characteristics.40 Western Mediterranean would thus be considered as a kind of ‘‘Wild West’’ to this province. Research about the end of the Neolithic has so far attributed a structuring role to the chronological division between a megalithic and collectivist ‘‘pre’’ time, and an individualistic and warrior 40 Chernykh 1992; Chernykh 2008. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 181 Ideology of the Warrior ‘‘post’’ time that would take place according to the region at the time of advent of the Corded Ware or Bell Beaker cultures. Yet, this pattern can actually be applied only to part of the European territory. Even if the historical scenario I have tried to sketch can be contested, one must admit that the individualistic and warrior ideology is already well established elsewhere in the second half of the fourth millennium. Along with the traditional vertical division, we have to take into account a geographical division which, between 3500/3100 and 2500 BC, distinguishes between the areas already deeply transformed by the ideology of the warrior, and others belonging to the second megalithic movement, the most recent expressions of the Michelsberg/TRBK complex and the Danubian Neolithic, and where the steppe characters remain limited during the centuries prior to the appearance of the Corded Ware, then of the Bell Beaker cultures, as perfectly demonstrated by Harrison and Heyd. 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Autorenadresse: Christian Jeunesse Université de Strasbourg MISHA 5 allée du Général Rouvillois F-67083 Strasbourg cedex Summary It has long been a tradition, when sketching a broad picture of Neolithic Europe, to date one of the major historical turning points to the transition between the megalithic period of the Late Neolithic I (the SOM-HorgenWartberg horizon) and the beaker cultures of the Late Neolithic II (Corded Ware and Bell Beaker). According to this theory, the emergence of the Corded Ware culture at the beginning of the third millennium, followed a few centuries later in other areas by the Bell Beaker culture, would coincide with the beginning of a new ideology allowing a greater role to the individual and focused on the warrior ﬁgure, as suggested by the symbolic value granted to the weapons (dagger, axe and bow). And yet, it is often overlooked that this pattern is relevant only for part of Europe. In other regions, particularly the area encompassing the North Pontic steppes and the fore-Caucasus region and several areas of the western Mediterra- Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 nean, the ideology of the warrior is strongly established as early as the second half of the fourth millennium BC. This article will brieﬂy examine the data available for the western Mediterranean. The upheavals that have aﬀected the concerned areas (Italy, Iberian Peninsula and South of France) during the 3400 –3000 BC chronological horizon (development of metallurgy, emergence of new types of copper or ﬂint weapons, warrior graves, and anthropomorphic steles) suggest the existence of a homogeneous movement of diﬀusion expressing diﬀerently according to the type and degree of the local reactions. Concerning the origins of this movement, the recent available data tend to conﬁrm the old theory of the steppe inﬂuences. It is remarkable indeed that the bundle of traits which characterize the ideological revolution in the western Mediterranean at the end of the fourth millennium and those present in the North Pontic area and the North Caucasus foothill before 3500 BC, especially in the Maikop culture, display a similar conﬁguration. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift 184 Christian Jeunesse —#Å%"# —Łæ#' łŁ(;Œ#2 Œ-($Ł=# =*;ºŁ$Łå*æŒ;Ł ¯,(;:ß, :(Ł='$; ,Ł+*$5 , :*(*ı;+* ;$ >*ª-ºŁ$Łå*æŒ;ª; :*(Ł;+- :;Å+=*ª; =*;ºŁ$- I (ª;(ŁÅ;=$ Œ#º5$#(ß 0L3-I;(ª*=-´-($*=Æ*(ª) Œ Œ#º5$#(-> Œ#ÆŒ;, :;Å+=*ª; =*;ºŁ$- II (Œ#º5$#(ł=#(;,;Ø Œ*(->ŁŒŁ Ł $(-+ŁçŁ' Œ;º;Œ;º;,Ł+=ßı Œ#ÆŒ;,);+Ł= ŁÅ ªº-,=ßı Łæ$;(Łå*æŒŁı :;,;(;$=ßı :#=Œ$;,. 0;ªº-æ=; 4$;Ø $*;(ŁŁ, ,;Å=ŁŒ=;,*=Ł* Œ#º5$#(ß ł=#(;,;Ø Œ*(->ŁŒŁ , =-å-º* $(*$5*ª; $ßæ'å*º*$Ł', Ł :;æº*+#2ø*Ø *Ø =*æŒ;º5ŒŁ> ,*Œ->Ł :;Å+=**, , +(#ªŁı (*ªŁ;=-ı, Œ#º5$#(ß Œ;º;Œ;º;,Ł+=ßı Œ#ÆŒ;,, æ;,:-+-*$ æ =-å-º;> =;,;Ł Ł+*;º;ªŁŁ, #+*º'2ø*Ø Æoº5ł#2 (;º5 ºŁå=;æ$Ł/Ł=+Ł,Ł+#-º# Ł æ";Œ#æŁ(;,-==#2 =- "Łª#(* ,;Ł=-, Œ-Œ 4$; :(*+:;º-ª-*$æ' æŁ>,;ºŁå*æŒŁ> Å=-å*=Ł*> ;(#ÇŁ' (ŒŁ=Ç-º, $;:;( Ł º#Œ). ¨ $*> =* >*=**, Å-å-æ$#2 #:#æŒ-*$æ' ŁÅ ,Ł+- $;, å$; 4$- >;+*º5 (*º*,-=$=- $;º5Œ; +º' å-æ$Ł ¯,(;:ß. ´ +(#ªŁı >*æ$-ı, , ;æ;Æ*==;æ$Ł , (*ªŁ;=*, ,Œº2å-2ø*> , æ*Æ' æ*,*(=ß* :;=$ŁØæŒŁ* æ$*:Ł, ˇ(*+Œ-,Œ-ÅæŒŁØ (*ªŁ;= Ł =*Œ;$;(ß* å-æ$Ł Å-:-+=;ª; 0(*+ŁÅ*>=;>;(5', Ł+*;º;ªŁ' ,;Ł=- æ";(>Ł(;,-º-æ5 #Ç* ,; ,$;(;Ł :;º;,Ł=* å*$,*($;ª; $ßæ'å*º*$Ł' +; =.4. Eurasia Antiqua Band 20/2014 Stand vom: 20.9.2017 ˜-==-' æ$-$5' ,Œ(-$ç* (-ææ>-$(Ł,-*$ +;æ$#:=ß* +-==ß* :; Å-:-+=;># 0(*+ŁÅ*>=;>;(52. 0+,ŁªŁ/:;$('æ*=Ł', Å-$(;=#,łŁ* #:;>'=#$ßØ (*ªŁ;= (¨$-ºŁ', ¨Æ*(ŁŁæŒŁŁ :;º#;æ$(;, Ł 2ª J(-=çŁŁ) , :*(Ł;+ >*Ç+# 3400–3000 ªª. +; =.4. ((-Å,Ł$Ł* >*$-ºº#(ªŁŁ, :;',º*=Ł* =;,ßı ,Ł+;, >*+=;ª; ŁºŁ Œ(*>=*,;ª; ;(#ÇŁ', Å-ı;(;=*=Ł' ,;Ł=;, Ł -=$(;:;>;("=ß* æ$*ºß) :;+(-Å#>*,-2$ æ#ø*æ$,;,-=Ł* ª;>;ª*==;Ø +Ł""#ÅŁŁ, :(Ł;Æ(*$-,ł*Ø (-ÅºŁå=ß* ";(>ß ,ß(-Ç*=Ł', , Å-,ŁæŁ>;æ$Ł ;$ ,Ł+- Ł #(;,=' >*æ$=;Ł (*-ŒçŁŁ. ˚-æ-$*º5=;-Ç* ,;:(;æ- ; :(;Łæı;Ç+*=ŁŁ +,ŁÇ*=Ł', ˝;,ß* +;æ$#:=ß* +-==ß* Ł>**$ $*=+*=çŁ2 :;+$,*(Ç-$5 æ$-(#2 $*;(Ł2 æ$*:=ßı "-Œ$;(-ı :(;Łæı;Ç+*=Ł' +Ł""#ÅŁŁ. ´-Ç=; Å->*$Ł$5, å$; æ;,;Œ#:=;æ$5 :(ŁÅ=-Œ;,, ı-(-Œ$*(ŁÅ#2øŁı Ł+*;º;ªŁå*æŒ#2 (*,;º2çŁ2 , Å-:-+=;> 0(*+ŁÅ*>=;>;(5* , Œ;=ç* å*$,*($;ª; $ßæ'å*º*$Ł'-:;Œ-Åß,-2$ ";(>ß, :;+;Æ=ß* :(ŁÅ=-Œ->, Ł>*,łŁ> >*æ$; Æß$5 +; 3500 ª;+- +; =.4. , æ*,*(;:;=$ŁØæŒŁı æ$*:'ı Ł =- æ*,*(;Œ-,Œ-ÅæŒ;> :(*+ª;(5*. Trennprogr.: DeutschNeu O:/DAI/Eurasia_Ant_20/3d/003/41ai003u_NEU.3d Satzprogramm: 3B2 insgesamt 14 Seiten Bearb.: DP Verwendete Schrift: Meta (Open Type) — Registerhaltigkeit Grundschrift

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JEUNESSE C. (2017) Emergence of the Ideology of the Warrior in the Western Mediterranean during the second Half of the fourth Millennium BC, Eurasia Antiqua. Zeitschrift für Archäologie Eurasiens 14 (2014), p. 171-184.

JEUNESSE C. (2017) Emergence of the Ideology of the Warrior in the Western Mediterranean during the second Half of the fourth Millennium BC, Eurasia Antiqua. Zeitschrift für Archäologie Eurasiens 14 (2014), p. 171-184.

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